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Jibe " Mestiiilustev " Seitca 



TEXTILES 



TEXTILES 



A. F. BARKER, M.Sc. 

'I 

WITH CHAPTEUS ON 

THE MERCERIZED AND ARTIFICIAL FIBRES, 
AND THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 

BY W. M. GARDNER, M.SC. F.I C. 

SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 

BY R. SNOW 

THE COTTON INDUSTRY 

BY W. H. COOK, M.I.MECH.B. 

THE LINEN INDUSTRY 

BY F. BRADBURY 



(REVISED EDITION.) 




NEW YORK 
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 

Eight Warren Street 
1922 






"^ f ( V, s- 



Printed in Great Britain. 



PREFACE 

In the following pages practically the whole range of 
Textiles comes under review, wath the exception of certain 
very special branches, such as Trimmings, Hose-pipings, 
Beltings, etc. It is hardly to be expected that such a wide 
field can be satisfactorily covered by one writer, however 
well he may have been trained and whatever may have 
been his opportunities of gaining practical experience and 
insight. Thus, although I alone am responsible for the 
bulk of the work, special chapters by recognised authorities 
have been introduced. Professor Gardner is responsible for 
the chapters on " The Mercerized and Artificial Fibres " and 
" Dyeing " ; Mr. E. Snow for the chapter on " Silk Throwing 
and Spinning " ; Mr. W. H. Cook for the chapter on " The 
Cotton Industry " ; and Professor Bradbury for the chapter 
on " The Linen Industry." That these chapters add much to 
the practical value of the treatise will at once be conceded. 

The authors hope that this work may prove of value to 
those who require extensive but accurate information on 
the whole range of the Textile Industries ; that the 



vi PEEFACE 

technicalities dealt with in the work will serve well the 
practical man in his every-day difficulties ; and finally that 
the student desiring an all-round knowledge upon which 
to soundl}^ base his later special knowledge will here find 
that which he seeks. 

Aldred F. Barker. 

The Technical College, Bradford, 
February 16th, 1910. 



PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION 

Several reprints of this work in its original form have been 
issued. It is now felt by the authors that although there is 
little to change in order to bring the work thoroughly up to 
date, yet certain additions are called for, and that in some few 
cases a broader outlook may well be advocated. 

With these additions and revisions incorporated, it is hoped 
that the work may prove as acceptable in the future as it has 
proved in the past. 

Aldred F. Barker. 

The University, Leeds, 

November 1st, 1921. 



CONTENTS 



CHAP. 
I. 

n. 
III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VJII. 

IX. 
X. 

XI. 
XII. 
XIII. 
XIV. 

XV. 
XVI. 
XVII. 



THE HISTORY OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES ; ALSO OP TEXTILE 

INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS ..... 1 

THE WOOL, SILK, COTTON, EL-^X, ETC., GROV/ING INDUSTRIES 18 

THE MERCERIZED AND ARTIFICIAL FIBRES EJIPLOYED IN THE 

TEXTILE INDUSTRIES ....... 62 

THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS ..... 70 

THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING ...... 92 

PROCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING .... 127 

THE PRINCIPLES OF WEAVING . . . . . .170 

THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING . . .195 

THE PRINCIPLES OF FINISHING ...... 216 

TEXTILE CALCULATIONS . . . . . . - 230 

THE WOOLLEN INDUSTRY ....... 248' 

THE WORSTED INDUSTRY ....... 257 

THE DRESS GOODS, STUFF, AND LININGS INDUSTRY . . 273 

THE TAPESTRY AND CARPET INDUSTRY . . . . 233 

SILK THROWING AND SPINNING ...... -92 

THE COTTON INDUSTRY ....... 333 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY HISTORICALLY AND COMMERCIALLY 
CONSIDERED ....... 

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND THE FUTURE OF THE TEXTILE 
INDUSTRIES ........ 



349 

375 
C81 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



via. 
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 



WOOLS AND HAIRS ....••• 

WOOL GROWING COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD 

THE COTTON FIBRES OF COMMERCE .... 
THE world's COTTON PRODUCTION .... 
THE world's production OF FLAX, HEMP, JUTE AND RAMCE 
MICROGRAPHS OF WOOL FIBRES 

7 AND 8. MICROGRAPHS OF COTTON^ AND SILK FIBRES . 

8A. graph ILLUSTRATING THE RELATIVE STRENGTHS OF FIBRE 
THREAD AND FABRIC ...... 

9. DOUBLE-GROOVED WHEEL A ; PEDAL B; FLYER 0; BOBBIN D 

9a. ARRANGEMENT OF FLYER AND BOBBIN .... 

10. SINGLE ROLLER, DOUBTLE ROLLERS AND DRAFTING ROLLERS 

11. DRAFTING ROLLERS FOR VARIOUS LENGTHS OF STAPLES OF COTTON 

12. ILLUSTRATING THE RELATIVE SIZES OF WOOL AND COTTON 

DRAFTING ROLLERS ....... 

13. ARKWRIGHT's WATER-FRAME ...... 

14. POSSIBLE POSITION OF SPINDLE IN RELATIONSHIP TO DRAFTING 

ROLLERS .....•••• 
14a. POSSIBLE POSITION OF SPINDLE WITH GUIDE EYE IN RELATIONSHIP 

TO DRAFTING ROLLERS ...... 

RING SPRING FRAME . . . . • . 

CAP SPINNING FRAME ....... 

GENERAI- VIEW OF WOOLLEN MULE .... 

JENNY ......... 

(A) CONDENSED WOOLLEN SLIVER, PRIOR TO SPINNING 

(B) WORSTED SLIVER, PRIOR TO SPINNING . 
WORSTED MULE SECTION ...... 

plait's MULE-FRAME, SECTIONAL VIEW .... 



15. 
16. 
17. 
IS. 
i9. 

20. 
21. 

22. SIX CLASSES OF TWOFOLD YARNS . 

23. STAGES IN WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING 
24 AND 24a. STAGES IN WOOL COMBING AND WORSTED YARN SPIN 

NING ......... 

25. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF NET SILK YARNS 



P,*GS 

25 

27 
42 
43 
5i 
55 
59 

93 
95 
93 
93 
100 

101 

103 

105 

105 
10? 
110 
113 
114 

115 
117 
122 

125 
132 

134 

135 



LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS 



FIG. TAQE 

1'6. SPUSr SILK DRAFTS . . , . . . . .136 

26a. stages in china grass sfinnijsg ..... 137 

27. COTTON gin ......... 140 

27a. section of single macarthy cotton gin .... 141 

28. automatically self-cleaning wool-washing machine . 142 

29. the cotton scutcher ....... 144 

29a. SECTION OF single COTTON SCUTCHER ..... 145 

29b. the flax scutcher . . . . . . . . 146 

30. THE hot-air backwasher ....... 147 

31. plan and elevation of sheeter gill-box . . . 149 

31a. four-head FRENCH GILL-BOX IN PLAN AND ELEVATION . . 150 

32. SELF-CLEANING FLAT COTTON CARDER ..... 151 

33. ILLUSTRATING THE SIZES OF CYLINDERS IN CARDS FOR CARDIN 

VARIOUS QUALITIES OF WOOL .... 

34. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF CARDING 

35. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF CARDING 

36. FILLING ENGINE ....... 

37. SILK DRESSING FRAME ...... 

38. POSITION OF LARGE AND TWO SMALL CIRCLES IN THE NOBLE 

COMB ........ 

38a. self-supporting noble comb : the latest form 

39. TAPE condenser (general view) 
39a. TAPE condenser (sectional view) 

40. pricking from a long wool noble comb circle 
40a. view of wool fibre in the pins of a noble comb 

41. plan and elevation of a drawing-box 

42. cone drawing-box ...... 

43. french drawing frame in plan and elevation . 

43a. ENLARGED VIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS IN A FRENCH DRAWING-BOX 

44. IMPROVED BEAMING MACHINE .... 
44a. MASUREL VERTICAL SIZING MACHINE 

44b. warp drawing machine ..... 
44c. barber-warp tying machine .... 

45. tappet loom with outside treading 
45a. heavy coating loom ...... 

46. NORTHROP automatic WEFT MIXING WOOLLEN LOOM 

47. GENERAL VIEW OF A JACQUARD LOOM . 

48. NORTHROP HEAVY-WEIGHT SHEETING LOOM . . 



LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS xi 

FIU. PAGE 

49. nokthkop automatic loom, standard type for cotton goods 

(light weight and medium weight) .... 192 

50. ordinary, gauze, and plush interlacings . . . 199 

50a. showing, with a fabric composed of WHITE WARP AND BLACK 

WEFT, PLAIN WEAVE INTERLACING ..... 200 

50b. gauze GROUND FABRIC UPON WHICH A PLAIN CLOTH AND WEFT 

FLUSH FIGURE IS THROWN ....... 201 

50c. PLUSH FABRIC ......... 202 

51. 1, THE ORDINARY ; 2, WARP-RIB ; AND 3, WEFT-RIB INTERLACINGS 203 
51a. 4, WEFT-BACK ; AND 5, DOUBLE CLOTH INTERLACINGS . . 204 

52. FOUR VARIETIES OF SIMPLE GAUZE CROSSINGS . . . 205 
52a. GAUZE STRUCTURE WITH GROUPING OF THE PICKS AS THE CHARAC- 
TERISTIC FEATURE ........ 206 

52b. gauze STRUCTURE WITH FANCY YARN INTRODUCED. . . 206 

52c. DOUBLE WEFT GAUZE ........ 207 

52d. DOUBLE GAUZE INTERLACING ...... 208 

53. TWO TYPES OF PILE FABRICS '...... 209 

54. ILLUSTRATING THE PRODUCTION OF DOUBLE PLUSHES . . 209 

55. EXAMPLE OF THE REPRESENTATION OF SIMPLE INTERLACINGS ON 

POINT OR SQUARE PAPER ....... 210 

56. EXAMPLE OP THE REVERSING OF PATTERN DUE TO DEFECTIVE 

GRADING OF COLOUR RANGES . . . . . .211 

57. ILLUSTRATING THE GRADING OF COLOUR RANGES TO OBVIATE 

REVERSING OF PATTERN . . . . . . .212 

57a. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE EFFECT OF MIXING THREE COLOURS 

IN VARYING PROPORTIONS . . . . . . .214 

58. ILLUSTRATING THE SETTING OP FABRICS ; ALSO THE WEIGHTS OP 

FABRICS .......... 230 

59. ILLUSTRATING THE SETTING OP FABRICS .... 232 

60. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE RESULTANT COUNTS OP TWISTING 

TOGETHER TWO THREADS OF DIFFERENT COUNTS . . . 239 

61. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE ORDER OF PROCESSES IN WOOLLEN 

MANUFACTURE ......... 255 

62a. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF WOOLLEN AND WORSTED INDUSTRIES 261 

62b. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF COMBING PROCESSES FOR LONG WOOL 262 
62c. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE COMBING PROCESSES FOR SHORT 

WOOL 266 

62d. GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OP THE DRAWING AND SPINNING PRO- 
cesses on the french, english, merlno (open), and merino 

(cone) systems ........ 267 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



FIG. 

62e. 
62f. 

63. 
64. 
65. 
«6. 
67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 
76. 
77. 
78. 
79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
S3. 
84. 
85. 
■86. 
87. 



89. 
90. 
91. 

92. 
93. 
94. 
«5. 



PA OK 

WARPJXG, SIZING, DRESSING, ETC., PROCESSES . . . 275 
GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATIONS OF DRESS GOODS, SCOTCH TWEEDS AND 

WORSTED COATINGS FINISHING PROCESSES .... 279 

SIMPLE TAPESTRY STRUCTURE AND DESIG:j .... 285 

SCOTCH CARPET STRUCTURE ....... 286 

AXMINSTER CARPET STRUCTURE ...... 287 

BRUSSELS CARPET STRUCTURE ...... 289 

SILK KEELING, A.D. 1500 ....... 293 

SILK REELING, 1900 ........ 293 

CROISSURE BY THE SYSTEM CHAMBON ..... 300 

CROISSURE BY^ TAVALETTE ....... 301 

THE JETTK-BOUT, COMBINING FIVE COCOONS IN ONE THREAD . 302 

DUVET . . . . . . . . . . 303 

BOUCHONS OR SLUBS . . . . . ' * " " ^^^ 

KNOTS . . . . . . . . ■ . . 304 

BAVES IMPERFECTLY JOINED ....... 305 

VRILLES .......... 305 

SILK-HOUSE ......... 306 

THE EITSON SPINNING MILL ...... 308 

SPINNER (new type) ........ 309 

THROWING MILL, TWISTING AND REELING COMBINED . . 310 
THE BRADLEY'' SPINNER COMPOUND PROCESSES. . . .311 

SILK REELING MACHINERY AT THE ITALIAN EXHIBITION OF 1906 315 
INTERIOR OF KASHMIR REELING FACTORY . . . .317 

MODERN RING SPINNING MILL ...... 343 

PLAN OF COTTON MILL ....... 345 

GRAPHIC ILLUSTRATION OF PROCESSES IN COTTON MANUFACTURE 347 

PERSPECTIV:E view of a lapping ROOM IN THE OLDEN TIMES . 358 
THE LOCAL LINEN FAIR AT BANBRIDGE, IN COUNTY DOWN, 

IRELAND, IN THE OLDEN TIMES . . , . . 365 

LOADING FLAX ......... 366 

RETTING FLAX : PUTTING FLAX IN DAM ..... 367 

RETTING FLAX : TAKING FLAX OUT OF DAM AFTER, SAY, TEN- 
DAYS 368 

FLAX DRYING : STACK AFTER RETTING ..... 369 

FLAX SPREADING . . . . . . . . .371 

INSIDE AN IRISH SCUTCHING MILL ..... 372 

INSIDE AN IRISH SCUTCHING MILL ...... 373 



tPOl 



40. 



5,82( 

1,72] 
3,484 

3,47'; 
4,505 

7,611 

3,27^ 
5.27i 
i,56i 
1,77( 
5,49^ 
,0,00^ 



4,05f 
2,51'. 

I6,07t 



101. 



3,091 
7,353 
5,843 
4,316 
6,556 
1,354 
9,691 
4,522 

12,726 

19,646 
1,775 
6,677 
1,293 
9,928 
.4,922 
16,746 
)1,515 
i3.150 
(5,395 
1,866 
15,468 
r7,514 

18,616 



List IV. — Importation of Colonial and Foreign Wool into the United Kingdom from 1800 to 1916. 





1800. 


1810. 


1820. 


1830. 


1840. 


1850. 


1860. 


1870. 


1880. 


1885. 


1886. 


1887. 


1888. 


1889. 


1890. 


1891. 


1892. 


1893. 


1894. 


1895. 


1890. 


New South Wule3 . . 1 
Queensland ... J 


e,r,s 


83 


213 


3,998 


25,820 


51,463 


46,092 


142,588 


224,777 


f 217,119 
1 104,361 


265.181 
84.065 


245,290 
106,614 


321,154 
122,867 


306,091 
126,637 


274,448 
144,093 


353,407 
173,658 


373,757 
247,330 


310,631 
196,481 


347,277 
190,372 


369,037 
221,972 


293,759 
210,970 





_ 











65,378 


78,186 


209,038 


306,817 


317,152 


360,731 


345,396 


380,3.TO 


372,057 


865,172 


365,490 


386,914 


347,036 


382,937 


418,560 


346,445 










180 


4,005 


11,721 


17,468 


10,731 


17,039 


23,653 


21,681 


21,463 


22,261 


20.167 


22,035 


23,537 


25,855 


23,644 


20,794 


22,158 


22,655 


22,567 













3,484 


11,822 


23,564 


68,679 


109,917 


115,108 


1311.628 


106,403 


115,849 


111,236 


98,249 


120,665 














_ 








_ 




1,046 


1,992 


5,260 


9,211 


14,427 


16,862 


17.656 


19,382 


22,897 


27.949 


26,933 


25,002 


18,641 


26,959 























1,502 


17,870 


106,660 


189,441 


237,875 


260,912 


272.918 


265,684 


277,726 


292,724 


315,055 


319,615 


349,061 


378,991 


377,934 


355,257 


Cape and Natal 


- 


15 


29 


- 


3,477 


19,879 


55,711 


124,050 


190,614 


182,168 


227,289 


234,728 


288,910 


287,334 


283,194 


316,510 


278,476 


274,616 


240,606 


252,062 


294,253 


Tolal C'olcinial 


658 


98 


422 


8,003 


44,602 


168,558 


240,136 


673,314 


1,054,430 


1,209,891 


1,367,131 


1,361,266 


1,634,343 


1,626,013 


1,609,666 


1,697,473 


1,766,904 


1,621,901 


1,693,062 


1,802,269 


1,674,878 


Kasl India and Persian . 






_ 


_ 


7,611 


9,704 


62,226 


44,090 


112,716 


93,699 


118,525 


123,945 


134,170 


140,868 


125,670 


133,767 


141,476 


131,165 


162,980 


163,706 


185,465 
















— 


— 


119 


337 


1,672 


3,426 


2,393 


2,149 


3,789 


6,455 


8,200 


15,316 


10,091 


10,873 


14,971 




6,216 




1,170 


2,221 


14,609 


74,496 


63,278 


30,491 


19,681 


16,459 


28,119 


9,700 


12,005 


9,589 


6,356 


7,358 


4,592 


3,335 


4,478 


5,682 


1,644 


4,051 


4,504 


Spanish 


30,318 


2,971) 


17,681 


8,218 


5,273 


2,105 


4,199 


1,583 


14,603 


97 


15,766 


6,621 


8,137 


10,448 


5,854 


1,753 


3,079 


4,742 


1,631 


10,638 


4,240 


Porhigal 


9,622 


1(5,772 


475 


2,319 


1,66!) 


7,361 


24,503 


9.287 


14,356 


7,634 


8,589 


9,764 


10,020 


11,110 


7,684 


7,188 


9,304 


8.435 


9,941 


9,648 


12,620 


Uu89iaM 


25 


868 


150 


1,680 


11,770 


9,758 


22,1.50 


18,474 


45,417 


63,368 


65,027 


66,4-22 


59,802 


106,263 


65,606 


96,203 


63,297 


27,994 


30,789 


34,872 


32,998 


Tinliey, lOgvpliiii] & N. Africa 


7(i 


li7G 


380 


29 


5,492 


11,896 


17,545 


17,607 


49,853 


32,199 


(i0,079 


86,735 


77,793 


85,637 


73,169 


62,301 


81,001 


55,614 


40,094 


67,056 


42,435 


I'oruviaii & Cliilinu 


~ 


(;oi 


25 


64 


40,004 


39,731 


. 69,068 


64,173 


62,876 


65,691 


49,927 


69,942 


56,235 


67,047 


67,500 


62,068 


67,184 


72,368 


68,391 


62,938 


66,633 


Buenoa Ayrea & Moid.evidco . 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


3,841 


.^OSS 


11,122 


9,852 


8,728 


12,440 


7,016 


10,350 


11,885 


6,310 


9,145 


15,368 


16,734 


23,980 


38,659 


,31,026 


Falkland Is. * I'uuta ArcMiiis . 


. — 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


4,700 


6,909 


6,614 


7,697 


7,578 


8,963 


9,481 


12,859 


13,615 


15,087 


16,413 


18,017 


19,504 


Italian & Trieste 


8-1 


()83 


334 


14 


4,056 


1,636 


719 


832 


2,.565 


928 


1,574 


1,636 


1,187 


2,758 


1,058 


2,494 


841 


2,760 


2,897 


1,683 


1,438 


Sundry 


487 


349 


1,479 


3,995 


2,619 


3,041 


15,172 


10,643 


35,973 


14,990 


22,422 


14,523 


.21,433 


30,573 


19,065 


19,258 


23,935 


20,322 


24,777 


45,139 


34,629 


Goats' Wool' .... 


42,440 


26,244 


36,S55 


98,818 


186,070 


13,139 


11,915 


14,196 


57,449 


62,457 


76,690 


56,005 


72,767 


77,526 


48,131 


62,993 


71,170 


67,061 


60,873 


94,412 


50,473 


Total Bales . 


291,161 


492,491 


888,117 


1,484,681 


1.669,717 


1,819,182 


1,813,310 


2,002,960 


2,091,894 


1,941,886 


2,186,166 


2,271,642 


2,060,738 


2,168,443 


2,367,863 


2,167,059 





1897. 
316,754 


1898. 


1899. 


1900. 


1901. 


1902. 


1903. 


1904. 


1905. 


1906. 


1907. 


1908. 


1909. 


1910. 


1911. 


1912. 


1913. 


1914. 


1915. 


1916. 


Now South Wales . 


282,574 


276,303 


248,408 


353,091 


278,181 


233,922 


209,023 


240,922 


223,648 


308,628 


329,020 


291,823 


281,613 


269,685 


222,849 


223,095 


212,581 


501,691 


275,991 


Queensland .... 












90,135 




77,728 


148,059 


131,622 


130,128 


156,348 


143,945 


169,382 


157,236 


118,838 


133,120 


134,647 


260,151 


136,958 


Victoriiin 


358,717 




292,166 




375.843 


299,643 


224,787 


226,133 


261,724 


221,684 


330,326 


298,439 


306,250 


285,698 


318,367 


334,859 


255,907 


232,685 


305,430 


190,393 


Tasnumian .... 
















20,523 


13,770 


14,551 


22,147 


27,120 


22,190 


18,996 


20,546 


17,542 


19,314 


17,979 


21,036 


13,901 


Sotitli Australian 
















60.019 


76,469 


78,679 


89,637 


78,504 


100,895 


80,287 


113,040 


98,090 


66,400 


59,817 


83,.590 


47,974 


West Australian 










31,354 


39,990 


32.456 


33,851 


44,623 


38,724 


41,467 


58,480 


60,551 


61,177 


77,799 


77,971 


71,512 


51,038 


73,874 


65,578 


New /lOaland .... 












411,284 


436,500 


374,463 


394,390 


415,879 


442,973 


452,749 


499,436 


536,481 


501,174 


528,590 


519,699 


628,705 


5.55,536 


449,501 


Capo and Natal 






264,569 




214,622 


231,670 


224,458 


188,843 


192,210 


194,949 


259,691 


234,736 


336,078 


299,650 


302,867 


349,049 


■ 395,114 


319,513 


306,109 


253,174 


'I'otal Colonial 


1,663,236 


1,666,388 


1,486,014 


1,221,163 


1,602,726 


1,439,172 


1,319,365 


1,190,683 


1,327,167 


1,319,636 


1,624,997 


1,635,398 


1,761,168 


1,723,294 


1,761,814 


1,747,788 


1,884,227 


1,557,565 


2,167,323 


1,423,530 


ISnst India and Persian . 

China 

Germiui 

Spanish 

Povtngid 

llussiiin 

Turkey, Egyptian & N. Africa 
Peruvian & Chilian .■ 
Buenos Ayres & Montevideo . 
Falkland Is. & Puuta Arenas . 
Italian & Iricste . 

Sundry 

Goats' Wool .... 


172,309 
4,022 
9,677 
12,948 
10,294 
60,405 
63,984 
67,453 
47,931 
23,498 
2,138 
50,034 
95,487 


164,804 
8,813 
8,999 
3,110 
7,772 
39,186 
32,935 
00,310 
41,205 
27,646 
3,647 
48,729 
89,511 


133,632 
2,781 
7,675 
3,481 
8,314 
32,063 
28,363 
72,318 
20,109 
30,019 
6,042 
62,508 
107,290 


142,518 
4,151 
9,126 
896 
5,242 
28,018 
39,108 
70,423 
22,077 
28,784 
2.7(i8 
37,160 
69.446 


109,646 
1,776 
6,677 
1,293 
9,928 
14,922 
26,746 
61,616 
63.160 
35,395 
1,866 
45,403 
77,514 


100,538 
3,960 
4,486 
2,128 
10,633 
12,861 
36,692 
61,603 
37,220 
39,403 
6,567 
58,165 
104,644 


129,885 
3,792 
4,629 
1,413 
13,377 
10,772 
39,802 
61,274 
45,026 
39.027 
4.749 
42,407 
109,868 


158,600 
6,367 
7,668 
2,392 
11,587 
9,5.50 
63,712 
60,735 
22,719 
41,689 
.3,618 
48,706 
100,939 


153,841 
7,284 
6,636 
1,732 
11,018 
7,404 
43,104 
55,163 
52,839 
34,903 
3,889 
46,485 
101,712 


180,961 
8,742 
10,196 
2,139 
9,900 
19,476 
53,866 
63,091 
59,254 
41,884 
1,382 
47,943 
100,360 


159,818 
15,060 
11,533 
4,077 
10,214 
15,889 
61,726 
63,493 
70,343 
53,249 
2,761 
43,176 

109.077 


124,632 
7,977 
4,923 
300 
6,438 
12,568 
17,662 
52,197 
73,045 
55,340 
1,312 
33,440 
83,285 


222,155 
6,016 
6,098 
6,000 
13,954 
18,470 
42,010 
60,953 
67,914 
57,075 
3,314 
46,366 
106,280 


197,962 
4,474 
11,456 
2,599 
13,213 
10,366 
21,252 
57,100 
60,847 
66,591 
1,401 
47,482 
109,122 


209,674 
6,547 
8,218 
6,645 
7,216 
6,638 
28,617 
53,230 
68,680 
66,631 
1,584 
47,614 
99,177 


210,719 
5,335 
13,.500 
2,711 
11,323 
27,096 
34,190 
47,628 
77,045 
63,018 
2,088 
49,116 
127,337 


207,689 
6,728 
15,609 
10,079 
9,011 
22,393 
25,849 
63,751 
74,677 
75,706 
2,278 
25,442 
116,506 


159,174 
4,759 
8,537 
4,.571 
9,7.32 
11,827 
2li,737 
48,135 
55,.548 
56,510 
720 
22,220 
93,777 


206,905 
4,810 

748 
4,156 

10,660 
58,705 
60,949 
38,706 
25 
4,910 
38,384 


242,095 
2,019 

902 

1,543 

742 

11,279 

43,684 

37,190 

27,282 

2 

2,897 

37,092 


'I'otal Bales . 


2,269,416 


2,082.984 


2,000,609 


1,680,869 


2,048,616 


1,923,072 


1,825,446 


1,717,765 


1,853,177 


1,918,810 


2,225,417 


2,108,515 


8,407,773 


2,327,159 


2,371,785 


2,418,774 


2,346,005 


2,062,812 


2,608,341 


1,830,887 



A'ote.— Specially prepared by Messrs. Jacomb, Son i Co_ of London. 



TEXTILES 



CHAPTER I 

THE HISTORY OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES ; ALSO OP TEXTILE 
INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS 

The authentic history of the textile industries has been 
carried so far back into the pist ages by the archasological 
discoveries of the last hundred years that an interesting 
account of the evolution of these industries could readily be 
compiled. . Such an account, however, while of interest 
from an archaeological and historical point of view, might 
not be of much practical value : it would almost certainly be 
diffuse where concentration and triteness were desirable, and, 
possibly, too brief in dealing with those periods when change 
multiplied change, causing a rapid and extensive evolution. 

A sequential history of the development of the textile 
industries will here be preferable, although such will 
naturally sacrifice a certain amount of absolute accuracy 
to ensure a more perfect statement of the sequence of 
developments ; perhaps even a sacrifice of actual historic 
order may at times be necessary to impress the real 
historic teaching involved. Not that in the following pages 
history is to be outraged and actualities suppressed or 
changed out of recognition ; but rather that to gain all that 
history should teach a certain practical licence will be 

T. B 



2 TEXTILES. 

taken in presentation of the subject, its justification being in 
the clearness and precision thereby gained. 

Throwing back our minds to the time when our 
ancestors were ^emerging from the barbaric state, we 
can well picture to ourselves their earliest dress as the 
skins of slaughtered animals. As the human race was prob- 
ably evolved from the torrid- temperate zone (in Central 
Asia), it is possible that some lighter form of wearing 
garment preceded the skins of animals for personal wear, 
But it seems very probable that the first idea of textures of 
real wearing value would be first thus suggested. 

If any animal such as the sheep then existed, we can 
well imagine that the shearing of a fleece would suggest the 
matting together of fibres already favourably disposed for 
the formation of a continuous covering. Felt fabrics 
undoubtedly came early in the historic sequence ; thus both 
garments and hats of felt were worn in Ancient Greece ; 
while remains of felts can also be referred to a much earlier 
period. But wool being the only fibre which truly " felts," 
the felt industry naturally cannot go further back than to 
the discovery of the felting proj)erty of wool. 

Wool could only be converted into a woven fabric by 
being spun into a "fibre-thread." Now prior to the 
spinning of " fibre-threads " — or yarns as we now term them 
— the art of interweaving rushes and other fibres or bundles 
of fibres of long length was undoubtedly practised, so that 
the art of weaving evidently preceded that of spinning in 
the natural evolution. Again, it is probable that the art of 
weaving preceded the art of felting, as it is a debateable 
point whether the art of felting preceded the art of spinning. 
The spinning and weaving of fibre-threads or yarns are 



THE INDUSTEIES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS 3 

obviously most delicate processes in comparison with rush 
and coarse fibre weaving ; but it is nevertheless true that 
as far back as the early Egyptian Dynasties a most refined 
art of weaving was practised, so much so that to-day 
Egyptian mummy cloths of a gauze structure are found 
worthy of reproduction. 

Turning to the conditions under which the arts of 
spinning and weaving would be practised in the early days 
of our civilization, we come across traditional industries 
retained in the family. It is more than probable that in 
some of the ancient civilizations the textile industries became 
more than family concerns, but so far as we are concerned 
the textile industry may be regarded as essentially a family 
industry until the home industries — developed from family 
industries — appeared about the commencement of the 
eighteenth century. This does not discount the " Trade 
Guilds " which flourished in many centres of industry, 
such being based as much upon the family as upon a more 
highly organized form of the industry. 

So long as all industries were distributed over the 
country it is evident that there would neither be the need 
nor the incentive for large production : the incentive would 
rather be towards the production of better fabrics and more 
artistic effects. Hence the marvellous beauty of many of 
the fabrics which came down to us from a very early 
date. And it is interesting and instructive to note that up 
to the nineteenth century attempts to introduce machines 
to facilitate production invariably claimed small considera- 
tion, while machines to facilitate the production of elaborate 
styles were certainly more than welcome. The " draw-loom " 
was successfully introduced from China, but M. de Gennes' 

B 2 



4 TEXTILES. 

power-loom failed ; Jacquard looms were in use long before 
the power-loom was either invented or adopted by the trade. 
Thus the art of producing elaborate and beautiful textiles 
followed civilization from the East to Southern Europe and 
from Southern Europe northwards. Marked indications 
of this line of development are still evident in the present- 
day organization of our industries, as will be shown later. 

"With the disturbance of the balance of production by the 
going forth of Europe's, but more especially England's, sons 
as colonizers would come the pressing demand for the 
greater production of certain commodities, of which cloth 
would be one. This would tend to break up the family 
traditions and to develoj) an industry organized on a larger 
scale, resulting in what might fairly be termed " specialized 
production " or organized home industries. Bringing groups 
of artisans together could not fail to stimulate industry and 
inventiveness, which in this case would naturally run on the 
lines of increased production. Now the Continent would 
naturally have shared in this evolution had it been tranquil 
and comparatively undisturbed as was England. But the 
Napoleonic wars were such a constant source of ferment on 
the Continent that tranquil, undisturbed England reaped 
nearly all the direct benefits of the very rapid evolution 
dating from this period. 

About 1750 there commenced a natural evolution of the 
textile industries — spinning and weaving — the final result 
of which was to leave England for a long period of years 
practically supreme as a manufacturing country. 

Prior to this evolution two kinds of spinning wheels 
were in use, one of which might be termed the " long-fibre 
wheel " and the other the " short-fibre wheel." In the case 
of the long-fibre wheel (Fig. 9) a sliver of long fibres was 



THE INDUSTETES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTOES 5 

practically made up from the raw material to the right 
thickness by hand and then twisted and wound on to the 
bobbin at the same time by the action of the flyer and 
bobbin. The introduction of this wheel had increased the 
product about threefold, in comparison with the distaff and 
spindle. The attempt to use a double-spindle wheel no 
doubt suggested at an early date the more perfect and 
automatic production of slivers which might then be spun 
in greater numbers by hand. Thus in 1748 Lewis Paul 
developed the idea of drafting rollers. That he probably 
got the idea from seeing rollers used for elongating or 
working metal is indicated by the fact that it was thought 
possible that one pair of rollers would do all that was 
necessary, elongation of the sliver presumably being thought 
to vary with the pressure exerted. This mistake was soon 
rectified, and two or more pairs of rollers adopted. Eichard 
Arkwright now came upon the scene and, linking up the 
drafting rollers of Lewis Paul with the long-flbre spinning 
wheel, made it possible to control more than one or two 
spindles at the same time. Arkwright then linked up the 
water wheel to this machine and thus evolved what is 
known as the " water-frame," yielding a type of yarn known 
even to-day by the term "water-twist." 

It is probable that the "shorfc-fibre wheel" was employed 
in the spinning of wool and of cotton — cotton was then a 
comparatively small industry^— both of which were woven 

1 Year 1701 : 

Cotton Exports £23,253 

Woollen Exports £2,000,000 

Year 1833 : 

Cotton Exports £18,486,400 

Woollen Exports . . . . . £6,539,731 



6 TEXTILES 

into fabrics known as Lancashire woollens. Spindle-draft, 
as distinct from roller-draft in Arkwright's machine, was 
here employed, the reduction of a thick carded sliver into 
a comparatively thin thread being accomplished by mere 
extension, by the movement of the hand away from the 
spindle point, with the aid of a little twist ; then upon the 
completion of the drafting the necessary twist was put into 
the thread. The process was intermittent, as winding on to 
the bobbin followed this drafting and twisting. The idea 
of working more than one spindle would here be more 
difficult of realization than in the case of the flyer, as the 
cycle of operations was much more complex. Improve- 
ments in the preparation of the slivers would here also 
forward the multiplication of the spinning spindles. Thus 
Hargreaves invented the " jenny," which was simply a 
multiplication of the spindles to be worked by hand, the 
action being really an exact copy of the mechanical operation 
of spinning on the " short-fibre wheel." This was soon 
followed by the " slubbing-billy," in which the position of 
spinning spindles and the slubbings were reversed, as in 
the mule of to-day. The " billy " was gradually developed 
by such men as Kelly, Kennedy, Eaton, and many others, 
into the hand-mule, and finally the hand-mule was success- 
fully converted into the self-acting mule by Eichard 
Roberts in 1830. 

Much has been made of the invention of the " mule " by 
Crompton. But the truth is our ideas here need consider- 
able revision. Crompton's idea of combining the drafting 
rollers of Arkwright's water-frame with the spindle- 
draft of Hargreaves' " jenny " was simply a " happy 
thought." Certainly this happy thought was combined 



THE INDUSTRIES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTOBS 7 

with a certain amount of resolution and skill in putting the 
idea into practice, but it should be noted that the woollen 
" mule " of to-day is not Crompton's mule at all, and in 
fact is not a "mule," but a "pure-bred," and all the 
really ingenious mechanism on both woollen, cotton, and 
worsted mules is not due to Crompton, but to the men pre- 
viously mentioned. It is further interesting to note that 
most of the complex mechanisms combined in the mule were 
known to sj)inners and would-be inventors prior to Roberts 
taking the mule in hand, but owing to their lack of power 
of sequential integrating thought they all i ailed in devising a 
successful machine. It was Roberts who combined the ideas 
presented to him into a harmonious whole and gave to the 
world one of the most wonderful and ingenious machines 
which has ever been invented. 

It will readily be imagined that the improvements in 
spinning just mentioned naturally resulted in a marked 
multiplication of yarn production. Curious to relate, how- 
ever, there does not appear to have been over-production of 
yarn, but rather under-production of cloth. It is said 
of the hand-loom weavers of this period that they went 
about with £5 sewn in their hats, so remunerative was 
their art. The invention of Kay's " fly-shuttle " in 1738 — 
an invention be it noted which could only affect pro 
duction, not quality nor elaborateness of the resultant 
fabric-^had been followed by others which brought the 
hand-loom up to the perfection of to-day. The word 
" witch " — applied to the shedding mechanism known 
to-day as the " dobby " — carries with it an indication of 
the way in which some of these innovations were regarded. 
The placing of two or more shuttles in movable planes or 



8 Textiles 

shuttle-boxes, any of which could be brought into line with 
the picking plane, was possibly introduced in more places 
than one quite independently, while " permanent back- 
rests," " setting-up " and " letting-off " motions had 
developed, so far as might be, the possibilities of the hand- 
loom from the production point of view. 

And here it is well to realize definitely that there were three 
distinct phases in the development of the textile industries. 
In the Middle Ages we note these industries as distributed, 
laborious and, comparatively speaking, unproductive voca- 
tions. In the eighteenth century these distributed industries 
were becoming more concentrated and, more important still, 
were developing almost all the well-known methods of spinning 
and weaving employed to-day. Then came the nineteenth 
century, with its applied power — in some cases the application 
of power leading to the development of a machine, and in other 
cases the development of a machine leading to a better control 
and application of power. It should here be noted that, 
although the cotton trade was introduced into this country 
from India and the East, and although there was legislation 
against the use of cotton and in favour of wool prior to the 
mechanical era, still this trade was necessarily so restricted 
that it was not until the possibilities of the steam-engine and 
power machines were realized that the cotton industry took 
on a really serious r^nd substantial development. 

It is interesting to note that power was practically applied 
to the spinning frame earlier than to the loom. Arkwright's 
" water-frame "^was successfully run shortly after 1769, while 
no practical power-loom was running until about 1813. By 
the middle of the nineteenth century hand-spinning was fast 
disappearing from all the manufacturing districts, but hand- 



The industries, inventions and inventors 9 

weaving is even still continued in the twentieth century. 
Arkwright's " water-frame " was most easily rendered auto- 
matic ; the spinning- jenny or " mule " up to a certain point 
was soon rendered automatic, but the completion of the 
necessarily complex cycle of operations automatically was not 
accomplished until Roberts faced the problem in 1825. The 
cycle of operations involved in weaving being more complicated 
than the " water-frame " cycle, but less complicated than the 
" mule " cycle, would naturally have come in between but 
for the difficulties in obtaining a steady drive. Dr. Cart- 
wright's first attempt at a power-loom was made without the 
slightest reference to a hand-loom and proved a failure. His 
second attempt was based perhaps too much upon the 
hand-loom, but may be regarded as having been fairly success- 
ful. It is well to fully realize that, while the introduction of 
water-power facilitated spinning, it did not facilitate weaving 
to nearly the same extent ; simply because for weaving a 
really steady drive to ensure steady picking is necessary, and 
this was probably not by any means attained to in the early 
days of water-power driving. Later, when steam power was 
applied, marked improvements in steadiness were rapidly 
developed, with the result that practically most movements 
involved in ordinary spinning and weaving could be accom- 
plished automatically from 1830 onwards. Then came the 
exodus from the country districts and the centralization of 
industries on or near to the coalfields. Thus it is interesting 
to note that prior to England becoming a manufacturing 
country the avooI of England met the skill of Southern Europe 
in Flanders. Later a distributed industry is to be noted in 
England, the industry generally following the line of supply 
of the raw material. Still later the coal-power of Yorkshire 



10 TEXTILES 

meets the wool production of Yorkshire at Bradford, and the 
coal-power of England the cotton of America in Lancashire. 

Attention was now turned to the more perfect preparation 
of the slivers of wool, cotton, flax, etc., for the subsequent 
spinning process. Hand-cards were early displaced by the 
roller hand-card, and this in turn developed into the " flat- 
card " and later the " revolving flat-card." The development 
of the card, however, was more of an engineering problem than 
a problem in mechanism, the style of build and accuracy of 
setting being the real difficulties. There is an exception to 
this, however, in the case of the woollen condenser. Originally 
cardings were left exceedingly thick and unwieldy, having to 
be drawn out into slubbings and then into slivers, finally to 
be spun on the wheel or jenny. The first improvement was 
the dividing of the card-clothing on the last doffer into strips 
of 6 inches to 8 inches wide across the doffer, so that from 
the circumference of, say, a 24-inch doffer 10 or 12 slubbings 
just the width of the card — each say 27 inches to 36 inches 
long — would be stripped, these strippings being piecened up 
on the apron of the slubbing-billy by boys and girls called 
" pieceners." Then what was called a " piecening machine " 
was added, which, taking charge of these slubbings, each as 
long as the doffer was wide, stripped from the doffer, joined or 
placed them into continuous slivers, which were wound on to 
a spindle or bobbin, and placed later on the slubbing-billy.^ 

Some time after the introduction of the piecening machine 
the " condenser " made its appearance. In this the last 
doffer or doffers were clothed concentrically with rings of 
card-clothing, so that the slivers were stripped continuously 
from the doffer, and were practically endless as compared with 
the 36-inch slubbings .stripped from across the doffer of the 
^ See "Journal of the Textile Institute," 1912. 



THE INDUSTEIES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTOES 11 

old card. In the latest form of condenser the wool is stripped 
from the last dof?er in a continuous film, and then broken up 
into 60 to 140 filaments by means of narrow straps or steel 
bands. One wonders why the idea of the ring-condenser was 
not sooner thought of and why it should have been so fre- 
quently tried and discarded. A little thought, however, soon 
clears up this point. It may be taken that wool fibres take 
up a more or less concentric position on the card. If this be 
so, then stripping the wool off the doffer in the old method 
would result in the fibres taking a concentric position in the 
thread, while in the case of the condenser they would take up 
a longitudinal position in the thread. This, no doubt, 
seriously affected the subsequent spinning, weaving, and 
finishing properties ; in fact, it is frequently stated that no 
fabrics equal to those made from yarn spun from the old 
piecening slubbings are to-day produced. Possibly the 
realization of this difference suggested the idea of preparing 
wool for combing by previously carding it. This was first 
carried into practice about 1847 and is to-day being largely 
applied even in the case of wools 8 inches to 10 inches long. 

The cycle of movements in hand-combing being more 
complicated than the cycle of movements in carding, auto- 
matic combing naturally developed much later than automatic 
carding. The operations of lashing on, combing, drawing off, 
and the removal of " backings," of " milkings," and of " noil " 
were necessarily very complicated, and it was largely by the 
elimination of certain of these that mechanical combing was 
made a success. As with most other machines, the first 
mechanical attempts were simply imitations of the hand 
process. Dr. Cartwright from 1789 to 1792 brought out two 
forms of mechanical combs which after many vicissitudes 



12 . TEXTILES 

were laid aside for many years until they both again emerged — 
the upright circle comb as Heilmann's comb, the horizontal 
circle comb in its most perfect mechanical form as Noble's 
comb. It should be noted, however, that it is Lord Masham 
(then Mr. S. C. Lister) to whom credit must be given for 
the creation of a practical wool comb : without his " driving- 
force " there can be no doubt but that the evolution of the 
wool comb would have been long delayed. As with spinning 
so with combing : the preparatory processes were of marked 
importance. Without the preparing or gill-box and the card, 
mechanical combing would to-day be at least very imperfect 
if at all possible. The " Genesis of the Wool Comb " is given 
in List I. 

We have now dealt with the evolution of all the important 
textile mechanisms with the exception of the ring and cap 
frames, which may finally be briefly touched on. 

Labour, especially male labour, being very scarce in the 
United States, difficulties were encountered in working the 
heavy mules or mule-jennies needed for the production of 
certain yarns. Again, the questions of speed of machine and 
production would no doubt claim attention. Thus in 1832 
the ring-frame (Fig. 15) was invented, this being readily" 
controlled by female labour and eminently suited to the 
spinning of certain useful cotton counts. 

Other ideas of frame spinning had naturally been tried in 
the States. The Danforth or cap spindle, coming to Lan- 
cashire about 1825, was condemned for cotton, but being 
introduced into Yorkshire was adopted as the system jpar 
excellence for the spinning of fine Botany yarns. It is curious 
to relate that the first trial of this spindle in Yorkshire was 
made at a very slow speed " to give it a chance." The result 



THE INDXJSTEIES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTOES 13 

List 1.— The Genesis of the Machine Wool Comb. 

HAND COMBS 

Modifications of 
Hand Combs 



Prior to 

1800 Cartwright's 

Vertical or 

Tuft. 



1814 Collier's Card- 
Comb. 

1827 1 



1840 



1845 Ileilmann's 



Hawkesley's Straight Cartwriglit's 
with Circular Comt? Horizontal 

(Continuous Slivers). Fringe. 



Donisthorpe's Me- 
chanical Hand Comb 
Frame. 



Piatt's Circular 
Fringe. 



1850 Suppression of 

Heilmann's Comb in 
Britain. 



1860 



1900 Schlumberger's 

Societe Alsacienne, etc., 
Combs reintroduced 
into Britain. 




Cartwright-Donis- 
thorpe's. 



Eamsb(>tham'.s. 

,1 \ 

Lister s; Square 
Motion. 



Holden's Square. 
Motion. 



Noble's. 



Eawson's. 



14 



TEXTILES 



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THE INDUSTEIES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTORS 



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16 TEXTILES 

was that the yarn could be jerked off the bobbin or spooL 
It was only when the bobbin was speeded up from 2,000 to 
5,000 revolutions per minute that the possibilities of this 
spindle were fully appreciated. 

From 1850 onwards — with the exception of the electric 
Jacquard and certain most interesting methods of pile weaving 
— no marked advances in the general form of the machinery 
employed in the textile industries are to be noted. Neverthe- 
less, the improvements in details have been many and in some 
cases of surprising merit. 

The development of pile weaving and of pile weaving 
machinery may briefly be summed up as follows : The printed 
warp pile fabric was introduced by Mr. R. Whytock about 
1832, This was followed by the Chenille Axminster — in 
which the colours were woven in — about 1839. From 1844 
to 1850 the power wiring loom was developed in the United 
States and introduced into Great Britain. From 1856 to 1867 
the power " tufting " or Axminster loom was developed, and 
finally, in 1878, Lord Masham succeeded in weaving two pile 
fabrics face to face, the pile stretching between an under and 
upper ground texture being severed in the loom by a knife 
which traverses from side to side with this object. From 1890 
to 1910 the chief innovations have had reference to the cuttiug 
of weft-pile fabrics in the loom, the introduction of the looping 
or cutting wires through the reed, thus doing away with the 
necessity for any wiring mechanism, and certain marked 
improvements in the mechanism for producing Chenille 
Axminster fabrics. 

:{: ^ ^ ^ H: 

Along with the developments outlined in the foregoing pages 
came the factory system. This system was no doubt evolved 



THE INDUSTRIES, INVENTIONS AND INVENTOES 17 

by the disturbance of the balance of trade due to colonization 
and the various inventions noted. One thing reacted upon 
another, production increased production, spindle stimulated 
loom and loom spindle, until eventually a terrible strain was 
put upon those actually engaged in the factory, and in many 
cases humanity was sacrificed on the altar of increased pro- 
duction, most awful conditions prevailing. Slowly, however, 
the position of the worker has been improved both by direct 
and indirect legislation. Foreign competition has no doubt 
retarded still further improvements being carried into effect ; 
but the rapp-ochement of nations due to increased facilities 
for communication must inevitably lead to a levelling up and 
to labour ultimately receiving due recognition both with respect 
to the conditions under which work is done and the pecuniary 
benefits derived from such work. Since the War this move- 
ment has been most markedly in evidence, even the Eastern 
nations agreeing to an eight- or nine-hour day. In Europe 
and America the status of the worker is being still further 
improved by means of the Whitley Works' Councils, by welfare 
work, by scientific management and by profit-sharing schemes. 
These and other similar developments, when rightly introduced 
into the factory, tend to lift the whole tone of the textile 
industries. 

In List II., ^ the concomitant early developments of Mechani- 
cal Methods of Manufacture, Organization of the Industry and 
of Markets, are given. 

1 Note.— This list was given in a different form in the article on 
" Wool Combing " appearing in " Technics " for August, 1904. 



CHAPTER II 

THE WOOL, SILK, COTTON, FLAX, ETC., GEO WING INDUSTEIES 

The sources of supply of raw materials must always 
claim the careful attention of spinners and manufacturers, 
even if they have not to deal with the material at first hand. 
It may be questionable if all the fluctuations in price of 
cotton, wool, etc., can be accurately gauged by the most 
careful study of the economic conditions of the supply ; 
but of this we may be sure, that a sound knowledge of the 
conditions of production and consumption will in a large 
percentage of cases enable the spinner or manufacturer to 
correctly judge the situation and thus avoid mistakes which 
otherwise would most surely be made. We must not forget 
that the successful man is he who makes the fewest mistakes ! 

About a hundred years ago most wonderful advances 
were being made in both wool and cotton growing. The 
development of the Continental merino wool trade, 
followed by the still more remarkable development of the 
Colonial wool trade, and later by the development of the 
South American wool trade — these and other minor but 
important influences have resulted in changes of momentous 
issue. Cotton much earlier than wool seems to have felt 
the coming revolution, becoming acclimatized or being 
further developed in the United States of America, the East 
Indies, Peru, and later in Egypt. It is further interesting 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEOWING INDUSTRIES 19 

to note that of late there has been a most decided unrest 
in cotton producing and consuming circles, resulting in the 
institution of the British Colonial Cotton Growing Association, 
which, if somewhat languishing before the war, is now 
threatening to again revolutionize the cotton markets. Silk 
also has made a remarkable advance, owing to the discovery 
of the possibilities of reeling certain wild silk cocoons and 
therefrom making a good quality of net silk. None the less 
remarkable have been the developments in the waste and 
artificial silk industries. Flax has never markedly changed 
its centre of gravity — at least so far as production is con- 
cerned — this no doubt being due to its being one of the fibres 
most easily spun by hand, and hence having been in general 
use prior to the industrial era. Its cultivation was much 
more distributed up to about 1870, but the chief centres of 
flax production, Ireland, Kussia, Germany, Holland, and 
Belgium, are all old established. Other vegetable fibres, such 
as China grass, Phormium Tenax, etc., have from time to 
time appeared, and it does seem as if at last China grass has 
come to stay ; especially is this remark true for the mantling 
industry, which during and since the war has made a marked 
development. The following sections, which must only be 
rogarded as notes, give a broad outline of the development 
of the respective industries. Perhaps such notes possess a 
value which is not diminished but rather accentuated through 
their very brevity and triteness. 

The Wool Growing Industry. — The sheep as we have it 
to-day is said to be a development, through years and years 
of selection and acclimatization, of somewhat rough-haired 
animals originally reared on the central plains of Asia. The 
evolution of the sheep was no doubt dependent upon the 

o2 



20 TEXTILES 

advancement in civilization of the peoples ultimately destined 
to spread not only over Asia, but Europe and Northern Africa 
also. It seems quite probable that the Arabs following the 
north coast of Africa into Spain took the partially developed 
sheep with them and by their well-known skill and carefulness, 
aided by climatic conditions, ultimately produced the Spanish 
merino, to which the merino flocks of the world owe their 
origin either directly or indirectly. At the same time that 
this evolution was taking place, the Asiatic tribes who struck 
northward across the central plains of Europe possibly also 
took with them the partially developed sheep which ultimately 
arrived in England. The evolution of our domestic sheep 
has recently been brought much more into evidence through 
the researches of Professor J. Cossar Ewart, F.E.S., of Edin- 
burgh University. Thus the short-tailed sheep derived from 
the Urial, Moufflon and primitive herds, as shown in List III., 
have come into Britain, and, in fact, seem to have spread over 
the whole of Europe, and are still to be found in their pure 
form in the little island of Soay, to the north-west of Scotland. 
The fat-tailed and fat-rumped sheep have also come to these 
islands and, being crossed with the Soays, have finally yielded 
our normal domestic sheep with its long tail. 

In List IV. the derivation of our present-day domestic 
sheep from the mountain and merino types is illustrated, this 
list forming a most excellent key for the study of the present- 
day breeds of sheep. Professor Ewart's researches have led 
to the suggestion that the original sheep was double-coated, 
i.e., it carried an overcoat of long, strong hair and an under- 
coat of fine wool. It is further suggested that, in the case 
of the merino, the long, strong hair has been bred out and the 
fine wool developed, while in other cases the fine wool has 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEOWING INDUSTEIES 21 



Urial. 



Urial- 

Soay. 



Ammon. 



List III. 
Moufflon. 



Moufflon. Fat- Fat- 

Soay. Tailed, Rumped. 





Fat-Tailed x Fat-Rum ped. 



Early European and African Breeds. 

List IV. 
Early European and African Breed?. 



Later Mountain Breeds. Proto 



Merino 



Breeds. 



Lustre 
Breeds. 



Mountain 
Breeds. 



Down 
Breeds. 



Merino 
Breeds. 



Fine Merino 
Breeds. 



been bred out and the strong liair developed. The Scotch 
Blackface sheep to this day carries a strong hair of about 
^ly inch in diameter and a fine wool of about yi^ to 
j^QQ inch diameter. 

In List V. the derivation of the merinos and the merino 
crosses — termed crossbreds — are shown. 

It seems more than probable that the original progenitor 
of the sheep was black or brown, and it is interesting to note 



22 



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WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEOWING INDUSTRIES 23 

that there are continual reversions to this colour in some of 
our whitest and finest breeds — Wensleydales, for example. 
So much has this tendency marked itself in certain parts of 
Australia that flocks of brown or black sheep have been 
established. The change in colour of the average sheep from 
brown to white is said to have been due to the custom of 
paying for shepherding with the white lambs dropped. This 
naturally led to the shepherds promoting the breeding of 
white sheep — as told with reference to Jacob in the Bible — 
with the final result that when the attempt was seriously 
made to breed pure white sheep success was soon achieved. 
Perhaps this matter is better approached in the light of 
Mendelian research, the white sheep usually being dominant 
and the black sheep recessive. The Cambridge University 
School of Agriculture and Wye Agricultural College have 
obtained some remarkable results in sheep-breeding on 
Mendelian lines, incidentally illustrating the Australian 
saying, " Three generations to find a breed, twenty generations 
to fix it." 

It is reasonable to suppose that the sheep as a supplier 
of wool and mutton, was very widely distributed, and that the 
small quantities of wool produced would be spun and woven 
locally until some change upset this distributed equilibrium. 
So far as we can tell, the first change was due to the developed 
skill of the Continental workers, probably coming down the 
Rhine Valley and finally settling in Flanders. At least we 
know that the skill of the Flemish spinners and weavers was 
largely instrumental in creating England as a wool-growing 
country. The direct endeavours of several of the English 
monarchs coupled with Continental wars and persecutions 
ultimately resulted in the establishment of spinning and 



24 TEXTILES 

weaving industries in England along with wool growing. 
Nevertheless the centralization of industry was only partial 
until, as already pointed out, our colonization of new worlds, 
Continental wars, certain mechanical inventions, and the 
application of water and steam-power gave rise to the factory 
system, which in its turn reacted upon the raw material 
producers and ultimately resulted in the development of the 
Cape, Australia, New Zealand, South America, the East Indies, 
etc., as the great wool-producing centres, although England 
still holds its own for its specially useful types of sheep. 
List II. gives an idea of how these markets developed and at 
the same time affected the production of wool in the older 
wool-growing districts. 

It will be noticed from these lists that the most marked 
development of the Botany wool trade took place between 
1850 and 1880, coinciding with the development of combing 
machinery capable of dealing with fine short wools, and with 
the invention and development of the self-acting woollen 
mule. In fact these lists conclusively prove that the develop- 
ment of the growing of fine wools was largely dependent upon 
the invention of machines with which to work them : thus the 
wool comb and the self-acting nmle were really the deciding 
factors. Of course woollen yarn had previously been spun 
on the " billy " and " jenny," and Botany wool had been 
combed by hand, but these being all hand processes were the 
natural but very marked limitations, and it was only when 
these limitations were removed that the most noteworthy 
advance was made — just as the development of these improved 
hand methods had caused a marked rise in wool production 
fifty to seventy years previously. 

It was the wonderful direct influence of the Australian 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC, GROWING INDUSTBIES 2, 




Fig. L — Wools and Hairs (the horizontal divisions = 1 inch). A, Line 
B, Kent ; C, Shropshire ; D, Australian Crossbred (46's) ; E, NewZea 
Crossbred (46's) ; F, Buenos Ayres Crossbred (46's) ; G, Australian M( 
(TO's) ; H, Buenos Ayres Merino (60's) ; I, Cape Merino (64's) ; J, Tu 
Mohair; K, Cape Mohair; L, Cashmere ; M, Camel's Hair ; N, White Al] 
Note. — The presence or absence of grease on these natural wool st 
has affected the colour-. 

climate upon the fleeces which first called attention to Australi 
as a possible fine wool-growing centre. The climatic con 
ditions, however, were not the same all over the islan 
continent, so that later developments have taken the line c 



26 TEXTILES 

heavier sheep of a greater value from a " mutton " point of 
view, with a consequent development in crossbred wool 
growing. When wool was down at a very low price in 1901-2, 
" mutton " became the chief factor in the case of all lands 
carrying crossbred or heavy sheep — as was also the case 
during these years in England. A large part of Australia, 
however, is only fitted for carrying the lighter merino breed, 
and thus will never be markedly affected by the frozen mutton 
trade. The great drought of 1897-8 and later Australian 
droughts of a serious character, in conjunction with a tendency 
to breed fewer sheep in other countries — South America and 
Canada, for example — have suggested the possibility of a 
world shortage of wool. For the time being the wool market 
is congested (October, 1920), but when this passes away it 
does seem possible that the newly developing sheep-breeding 
districts in Peru, India, China and Japan may make useful 
and necessary contributions to the wool requirements of the 
world. 

New Zealand, having a climate more akin to that of England, 
has always produced wools of the crossbred type, merino 
sheep being bred in some few districts only. 

The Cape has been a wool-producing country longer than 
Australia, but climatically is apparently not so suited to the 
production of wool of good type. Of late much has been 
done to improve Cape wools, and they are naturally more 
sought after, especially by the Germans, who seem to be 
specially capabb of manipulating them. 

Of recent years the country which has advanced most in 
wool production is South America. Originally a common 
sort of merino wool was grown, but now, owing to careful 
breeding and selection, both fine Botany and well-developed 






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28 TEXTILES 

crossbred and even English wools are produced. The wool 
capabilities of the South American Continent are by no 
means exhausted, and it seems a pity that we English failed 
to realize the wonderful potentialities of a country likely in 
the near future to play such an important part in the world's 
history. It is principally to this country that the £1,000 
Lincoln rams are continually being exported. 

The United States of America very early attempted and 
succeeded in establishing flocks of sheep ranging from cross- 
breds to truly fine merinos, although, as already pointed out, 
they at first as colonists drew practically all their cloths from 
the mother country, and still take large quantities of the 
finer goods. That the United States is capable of producing 
a fine merino wool is proved from the use — rightly or wrongly 
—which has been made of the Vermont merino sheep in 
Australia. This use, however, has been made with the idea 
of producing a heavier fleece rather than a finer wool. America 
still buys English sheep and English wools, the importation 
of the sheep probably being necessary to correct the tendency 
to degenerate owing to climatic conditions. It is interesting 
to note that the United States now grows about half the wool 
needed by the manufacturers, and her total wool manufacturing 
trade closely rivals that of Great Britain. 

Of the hairs manufactured into fabrics of various descrip- 
tions, Mohair, Alpaca, and Cashmere are the most important. 
Horsehair, Cow-hair, Rabbits' fur, etc., are used in small 
quantities only and for very special purposes. In List VI. the 
sources of the various animal fibres other than wool are 
indicated, and in List VIa. the variations in the camel repre- 
sentative in South America are graphically shown. 

That mohair was used in England two to three hundred 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 29 

years ago is evident from allusions to mohair fabrics made, 
for example, by Dryden. These fabrics, and later mohair 
yarns (hand spun), were no doubt imported from the emporium 
of the East, and it was only about 1848 that supplies in 
quantity of the raw material commenced to come into this 
country. Various restrictions were at first placed upon the 
export of the hair, but now it is an established trade and very 
considerable in bulk. More stringent restrictions were placed 

List VI. 
Common Ancestor. 



Goats, 



Camels. 



Sheep. 



List VIa. 
Huanaco.i 




Viotina. 



Llama. 



Special Cross. 



Special Cros?. 



on the export of the Angora goat, but owing to a certain 
amount of vacillation flocks have been firmly established at 
the Gape and also bid fair to become established in California 
and Australia. Turkey mohair still maintains supremacy so 
far as quality and lustre are concerned, but Cape mohair, 
which, by the way, is clipped twice from the goat each year, 

1 This animal ranges South America from Peru to Patagonia. It is still 
open to doubt whether it should be regarded as the progenitor of Vicuna, 
Alpaca and Llama, or whether all should be referred to a common 
ancestor. 



30 TEXTILES 

now runs it very close. The Australian supplies are not yet 
of much moment, while the industries of the United States 
consume all grown in California. 

Alpaca comes from the Peruvian sheep or goat. This 
hair, although used in various forms for centuries by the 
inhabitants of Peru, claimed no special attention in this 
country until Sir Titus Salt discovered it and produced his 
famous " alpacas." The fibre is long and silky and in some 
respects — notably softness — is superior to mohair. Most of 
the so-called " alpacas " sold to-day are actually made of 
mohair, for, curious to relate, while the supplies of mohair 
have quadrupled during the past fifty years, the supplies of 
alpaca have almost remained stationary, as all attempts to 
naturalize the sheep outside Peru have failed. 

Cashmere is obtained from the Cashmere goat, being the 
under-hair which is protected from the weather by a long 
coarse over-hair, and in turn no doubt serves the purpose of 
keeping the goat warm. This material came into notice as 
a useful fibre from the wonderful cashmere shawls which are 
so remarkable for their softness and fineness. The supplies 
of this material are in the hands of a select few and it is used 
for very special purposes. Soft, fine Botany wool is, however, 
frequently sold in a manufactured state as " cashmere." 

Camels' hair is obtained chiefly from China and Russia. 
The coarser kinds or hairs are used for such purposes as 
camels' hair belting, while the " noil " or short soft fibre 
is used for blending with wools to yield special effects. The 
combing of this fibre, as also of Iceland wool, is very interest- 
ing, the idea frequently being to comb away the long fibres, 
leaving the " noil " — usually the least valuable part of the 
material — as a soft-handling and exceedingly useful fibre. 

Cow-hair, rabbits' fur, etc., are only used for very special 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 31 

textures. Rabbits' fur, however, is used to a considerable 
extent in the felt trade. It is here interesting to note that 
the latest fibre introduced into the manufacturing world is 
the under-wool of the musk ox, the Canadian traveller, Mr. 
Stefansson, having forwarded a consignment of this to the 
University of Leeds. The fibre is softer than cashmere, and 
promises to be of marked value in the industry. 

Before leaving the wool industry reference must be made 
to the remanufactured materials, which briefly are Noils, 
Mungo, Shoddy, and Extract. The idea of using over again 
materials which have already served for clothing must be 
very old. It was not until 1813, however, that the Yorkshire 
clothiers succeeded in tearing up hard wool rags and there- 
from producing a material capable of being spun into a fair 
yarn, especially if blended with other bcuter materials. The 
operations necessary for this " grinding-up," as it is technically 
termed (although in truth the operation more truly consists 
in a teasing out), are dusting, seaming, sorting (according to 
quality and colour), oiling, and grinding. Obviously hard- 
spinners' waste would be most difficult to reduce again to a 
fibre state, but machines are now made that will grind up at 
least anything of wool ; cotton, however, is another matter. 
The terms mungo, shoddy, and extract refer to the original 
quality of the goods from which these materials are produced ; 
mungo being produced from soft short wool goods, shoddy from 
longer and crisper wool goods, and extract from goods made 
of cotton and wool from which the cotton is removed by the 
" extracting " process, the remaining wool being then torn up 
into a fibrous mass. 

To supply this trade large quantities of rags are imported 
into this country from the Continent, the Dewsbury and 



32 TEXTILES 

Batley districts working up a very large proportion. Quite 
recently the Americans made a very determined attempt to 
get hold of this trade, sending representatives into the Dews- 
bury district. They have undoubtedly been successful, 
although they cannot yet treat these materials quite so 
efficiently as the Dewsbury men, Germany has also a 
remanufactured materials trade of considerable moment.^ 

The " noils " referred to above are the short fibres rejected 
from either English, Crossbred, or Botany wools, or Mohair, 
Alpaca, etc. , during the combing operation. They cannot be con- 
sidered as quite equal to the original material, although they 
are undoubtedly superior to mungo, shoddy, and extract : they 
may have lost a little of their elasticity, but their scale structure 
is not so much damaged, nor are they so much broken up. 

Soft wastes {i.e., wastes into which little or no twist has 
been inserted) and hard wastes {i.e., wastes into which twist 
has been inserted), from worsted spinning rooms, are now both 
brought back to a perfect fibrous state by the Garnetting 
machine, and form some of the best materials used by the 
woollen manufacturer. In some few cases the larger of these 
wastes are actually recombed on the French comb. 

All these materials are either used alone or, more frequently, 
blended with better or what one might term " carrying 
materials. ' ' Cotton and mungo, for example, often compose the 
blend for a cheap but effective yarn for the Leeds woollen trade. 
The following tables, taken from the " Statistics of the 
Worsted and Woollen Trades," published by the Bradford 
Chamber of Commerce, give a bird's-eye view of the past 
and present constitution of the wool industry ; similar par- 
ticulars respecting the other industries are given in the special 
chapters devoted to them. 

^ 'Jhe re-manufacturcd materials eaiployeJ iu Great Tritain total up to 
about 240,000,000 lbs. i,er auuum. 



Estimate of the Wool Grown in the United 
Kingdom in 1914. 



County. 


Sheep and Lambs. 
1913. 


Weight per 
fleece. 


Total weight. 






lbs. 


lbs. 


Lincoln ..... 


937,545 


n 


8,906,677 


Yorks. — Ea-t Hiding 






431,215 


f 


3,449,720 


Nottingliaiii . 






173,412 


7.} 


1,300,590 


Cornwall 






356,067 ■ 


7 


2,492,469 


Devon .... 






797,003 


7 


5,679,021 


Gloucester . 






292,119 


7 


2,044,833 


Hampshire . 






293,143 


4^ 


1,319,143 


Oxford. 






185,067 


6* 


1,249,201 


Northampton 
Rutland 






351,343 
79,667 


6i 

7 


2,371,-564 
557,669 


Leicester 






277,491 


7 


1,942,437 


Warwick 






220,858 


7 


1,544,006 


Kent .... 






864,211 


7 


6,049,477 


Ireland 






3,620,724 


6 


21,724,344 


Somerset 






400,929 


7 


2,806,503 


Hereford 






303,804 


r.j 


1,746,873 


Worcester 






126,678 


5^ 


718,398 


Stafford 






189,926 


5i 


1,092,074 


Shropshire . 
Huntingdon . 






447,559 
67,U6 


6 
6 


2,685,354 

402,876 


Bedford 






69,488 


6 


416,928 


Berkshire 






128,815 


6 


772,890 


Bucldnghani . 






163,449 


6 


980,694 


Cambridge . 
Herts. . 






134,361 
72,976 


6 
6 


806,166 
437,956 


Norfolk 






401,698 


6 


2,410,198 


Suffolk. 






288,800 


5 


1,444,000 


Essex . 






184,168 


4i 


82«,756 


Surrey . 






47,495 


ii 


213,727 


Middlesex 






14,326 


5 


71,630 


London 






2,164 


6 


12,984 


Sussex . 






379,181 


H 


1,706,314 


Wilts. . 






392,155 


4.V 


1,764,697 


Dorset . 






292,973 


5 


1,464,865 


Scotland 






6,801,126 


5 


34,005,630 


NorthumberUuid . 






1,089,474 • 


6 


6,536,844 


Cumberland . 






587,271 


6 


3,523,626 


Durham 






229,378 


6 


1,376,268 


Westmoreland 






398,684 


6 


2,392,104 


Yorks. — North Riding 






694,214 


6 


4,165,254 


Yorks. — West Riding 






638,267 


6 


3,829,602 


Lancashire . 






315,476 


6 


1,892,956 


Derby . 
Chester 






126,895 


6 


779,370 






80,510 


H 


362,495 


Monmouth . 






206,037 


U 


927,166 


Wales . 






1 3,393,848 


3| 


11,878,468 


Sheep and Lambs in 1913 . . 27,552,136 




155,084,617 


♦Slaughtered .... 11,294.858 at 


3 


33,884,574 


Net Clip of Wool in 1914 


• - • 


. 121,200,043 



* The figures necessary for calculating the number of sheep slaughtered in Ireland are 
not available, but an estimate has been made on the assumption that flocks in Ireland will 
have decreased in the same proportions as flocks in Great Britain. 

Note —The sheep and lambs of 1918 produce the wool of 1919. The loss of wool on 
the slaughtered sheep, estimated at 3 lbs. per fleece, must, of course, be deducted from 
the total possible yield. The above flgures are, as usual, exclusive of the Isle of Man and 
Channel Islands. 



T. 



D 



34 TEXTILES 

Estimate of Wool Grown in the United Kingdom 
IN 1915—19. 



Net Clip of AVool in 1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 
1919* 
* Eleven months. 



Lbs. 
122.474,977 
124,408,224 
125,176,066 
119,736,277 
115,658,564 



The Silk Growing Industry. — At one time this industry 
was practically limited to China and Japan, in which 
countries the silkworm was rigorously guarded. Some 
missionaries, however, in the year 552 managed to bring 
some eggs to Constantinople, and eventually the industry 
was firmly established upon the north shores of the 
Mediterranean. Various attempts have been made to 
establish the industry elsewhere. Attempts, for instance, 
were made to acclimatize the worm in Ireland, and at the 
present moment a certain amount of success seems to be 
attained in Australia ; but rival industries or the unsldlful- 
ness of the rearers seem to prevent the attainment of any 
success of practical value. The United States, perhaps, 
may be regarded as exceptional in this respect. Not only 
have they developed their own breeds, but they have estab- 
lished a most complete silk industry from the worm to the 
finished product. 

The most remarkable development in the silk industry 
was brought about in 1877 by Lord Masham, who, after 
many failures, succeeded in producing cheaply and success- 
fully utilizing a most useful silk yarn from waste silks — old 
cocoons, brushings from the outside of the cocoons, throwing 
waste, etc. This development naturally lead to the utiliza- 
tion of wild silk, as tons of these pierced or spoilt cocoons 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEOWING INDUSTBIES 35 










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WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEO WING INDUSTRIES 37 



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WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 39 
Imports of Mohair into the United Kingdom. 



Year. 


From Turkey. 


From South Africa. 


1909 


lbs. 

10,803,206 


679,207 


lbs. 

19,443,656 


831,383 


1910 


11,285,454 


704,520 


18,474,303 


801,444 


1911 


6,533,624 


404,318 


18,712,068 


806,775 


1912 


10.539,006 


637,125 


24,410,180 


1,030,338 


1913 


10,402,360 


641,069 


18,52.3,197 


912,112 


1914 


9,007,839 


559,103 


17,591,882 


882,919 


IQl.^ 







14.186,028 


729,956 


1916 








11.215,019 


732,731 


1Q17 








3,544,605 


282,980 


1Q1K 








5,577,549 


541,870 


1919 


— 


— 


19,260,647 


2,144,041 



Imports of Alpaca, Vicuna, and Llama Wool into 
THE United Kingdom. 



1909 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 
1919 



From Peru. 


lbs. 


.£ 


4,837,858 


265,067 


5,429,408 


299,353 


5,019,542 


271,800 


3,422,015 


165,164 


5,432,386 


288.951 


4,295,190 


225,653 


6,729,235 


408,380 


5,372,416 


362,862 


5,120,482 


469,924 


6,479,782 


1,378,394 


2,625,623 


466,875 



From Chili. 



Ihs 

432,085 
429,270 
355,063 
181,895 
388,908 
199,247 

1,219,039 
486,485 
459,267 
555,234 

1,000,397 



24,649 
24,481 
20.310 
10,078 
19,477 
11,464 
95,235 
36,998 
45,167 
128,859 
176,933 



—supposed to be unworkable— were available. Thus was 
developed the remarkable trade known as the " spun silk 
trade." Curious to relate, however, the latest discovery is 
that many of these wild silk cocoons can be reeled, as will 
be further explained in Chapter XV. The supplies of wild 
silks are not yet exhausted, as news is just to hand of the 



40 TEXTILES 

Total European and American Wool Imports. 



— 


1910. 


1911. 


1912. 


1913. 


Australasian 
Cape . 


Bales. 
2,411,000 
377,000 


Bales. 

2,-524,000 
376,000 


Bales. 
2,463,000 
463,000 


Bales. 

2,296,000 

484,000 


Total Colonial . 
River Plate 


2,788,000 
401,000 


2,900,000 
499,000 


2,926,000 
497,000 


2,780,000 
437,000 


Total. 


3,249,000 


3,399,000 


3,423,000 


3,217,000 






1914. 


1915. 


1916. 




Australasian 
Cape . 


Bales. 

2,322,000 
499,000 


Bales. 

1,978,000 

414,000 


Bales. 

1,781,000 

453,000 




Total Colonial 
River Plate 


2,831,000 
406,000 


2,392,000 
Unavailable 


2,234,00C 
Unavailable 




Total. 


3,237,000 


2,392,000 


2,234,000 





discovery of wonderful nests of cocoons in Africa (Congo 
State) , arrangements for the exploitation of which are only 
just being made. 

" Net " silk (silk threads reeled directly from the cocoon) 
comes to us in the form of what is known as " singles," a 
thread composed of just a few strands — say six. In the 
English " throwing mills " several of these singles are 
thrown together to make up a thread of the required thick- 
ness, with little twist if for weft, or, as it is termed, " tram," 
and much twist if for warp, or, as it is termed, " organ- 
zine " (see Fig. 25). 

Waste silk is received in this country in three other forms, 
viz., wild cocoons, waste silk in the gum, and waste silk 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDtJSTRIES 41 

discliarged. All these forms are, however, worked up on the 
same principle, which will be described later. It is reported 
that the tropical forests are full of a usable waste silk which may 
be gathered and placed on the market at Id. per lb. If this be 
true, there are great possibilities before the waste silk industry. 

The Cotton Industry. — The cotton industry seems to be of 
Asiatic origin, and appears to have appertained more par- 
ticularly to the Mahometan religion, as we hear of Mahomet 
going about with the Koran in one hand, a sword in the other, 
and a cotton shirt upon his back. As already pointed out, 
flax, being a material more readily spun, would naturally 
claim first attention. It seems probable, however, that India 
was unsuitable for flax cultivation, while the cotton plant 
was evidently indigenous. Thus attempts would no doubt 
be made to utilize this very nice-looking fibre, and eventually 
cloths very suitable for the Indian climate would be produced. 
These fabrics being shipped to Europe no doubt ultimately, 
resulted in the cotton trade being established in various 
centres, but only on a very small scale. It was, as we have 
already seen, the mechanical era which gave life to the cotton 
trade and resulted in the development of the cotton-growing 
industry in the United States, the West Indies, Peru, the 
Sea Islands, Egypt, and later — under the auspices of the 
British Cotton Growing Association — in Africa. Our chief 
supplies of cotton still come from the United States. Egypt 
and the Sea Islands send us long-stapled cottons suitable for 
the Bradford trade, while Peru supplies us with a woolly 
cotton very suitable for blending with short wools for the 
Leeds and district trade. 

In Fig. 3 the chief varieties of cotton are illustrated. 



42 



TEXTILES 



'■1 Vi,t-i/. . 




WEST AFRICAN. Gambia. 

from American seed. 



WEST AFRICAN. Lagos. 





INDIAN. Oomrawattee. 



INDIAN. Bengal. 





INDIAN. Broach. 



INDIAN. Tinnivelly. 



Fig. 3. — The Cotton Fibres of Commerce. Scale, ^ inch, to 1 inch. 
Arranged and photographed by F. W. Barwick, Esq., of the 
Manchester Chamber of Commerce Testing House. 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEO WING INDUSTRIES 43 




BRAZILIAN. Ceara. 




BRAZILIAN. Pernam. 





'BARBADOS. Sea Island. 



EGYPTIAN. Abassi. 





NYASSALAND. Egyptiaa. 



EGYPTIAN. MItafifl. 



j^j(j_ 3. — The Cotton Fibres of Comuierce. Scale, § inch to 
1 inch — continued. 



44 



TEXTILES 





EGYPTIAN. Yannovitch. 



PERUVIAN. Smooth. 





PERUVIAN. Rouifli. 



PERUVIAN. Sea Island. 




AMERICAN. Carolina Sea Island. 




AMERICAN. .Georgia Sea Island. 



Fig. 3. — The Cotton Fibres of Commerce. Scale, ^ inch to 
1 inch — continued. 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEO WING INDUSTRIES 45 





AMERICAN. Florida Sea Island. 



AMERICAN: Texas; 





AMERICAN. Upland. 



CHINESE. 



EiG. 3. — The Cotton Fibres of Commerce. Scale, ^ inch to 
1 inch — continued. 



The cotton-growing countries of the world are shown in 
Fig. 4, from which it will be noted that practically the torrid 
zone is the cotton zone. Of course soil and other conditions 
in part determine whether cotton can be grown, but it is 
evident that much heat is desirable and even necessary, 
and, as a consequence, that the best available labour is 
black labour. The United States has its " black belt," 
and in our attempts to grow cotton in our Colonies — and in 
the case of French Colonies also — it seems as though we 
must be largely dependent upon black labour. 

The cotton fibre is produced on three varieties of plants, 




oo 





-.00 





m 00 





Soa 





oJO lO 




W'*"-! 







■<* 




.^ 



00000 
00000 



^o voooo rs 



g. HH>m 






WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEOWING INDUSTEIES 47 

viz., Gossypium Barbadense, or the true Sea Island cotton 
plant, which, yielding the best type of cotton, is the original 
basis of much American, Egyptian, and Indian cottons; 
Arboreum or tree cotton, yielding a rougher cotton, coming 
to us from Brazil and Peru ; and Herbaceum, or the variety 
of the ordinary cotton plant from which American cotton is 
largely produced. 

The Flax Growing Industry. — The flax fibre is one of the 
oldest fibres of which we have any records. The Biblical 
references to flax (or linen) are numerous, and remnants 
of old linen fabrics are frequently coming to light in the 
exploration of the sites of the older civilizations. The writer 
has just been asked to analyse some linen fabrics dating 
back some 2,000 to 3,000 years. The following are the 
results : — 



List VII. — Analysis of Mummy Cloths. 





To-day s 














Cloth. 


No. 1. 


No. 2. 


No. 3. 


No. 4. 


No. 5. 




Linen. 












Weight per yard, 














54 X 36 . 


8 ozs. 


12Jg ozs. 


12| ozs. 


10| ozs. 


10| ozs. 


11 1 OZS. 


Counts of warp . 


1/33-5 


1/20-7 


1/10-3 


i/32^7 


1/21-8 


1/29-1 




linen 




linen 




linen 


linen 


Counts of weft . 


V3rs 


i/16's 


i/lO's 


1/33-3 


1/18-4 


1/23-83 




linen 


linen 


linen 


linen 


linen 


linen 


Threads per inch 


46 


60 


28 


84 


50 


80 


Picks per inch 


43 


21 


18 


37 


25 


27 


Strength of warp 














(single thread) . 


30-72 ozs. 


— 


2-77 ozs. 


— 


1-31 ozs. 


1^65 ozs. 


Elasticity of warp 














(single thread) 


■36" 


— 


•272" 


— 


•524" 


•478" 


Strength of weft 














(single thread) . 


31-66 ozs. 


— 


5-01 ozs. 


— 


6-23 ozs. 


1^7ozs. 


Elasticity of weft 














(single thread) 


•472" 


— 


•374" 


— 


•288" 


3-34" 



48 TEXTILES 

The flax fibre, coming as it does from the stem of the flax 
plant, naturally requires very different climatic conditions as 
compared with the cotton fibre. Although its cultivation is 
still very dispersed, the chief flaxes are Irish, Belgian, Dutch, 
German, and Russian. The stalks when judged to be ready 
are pulled up by the roots, cither by hand or by one of the 
recently introduced pulling machines, placed in the dam to 
rot or " ret," as it is termed, dried and " scutched," this latter 
operation resulting in the cortical or non-fibrous matter being 
separated from the fibrous matter. Dew retting is practised 
on the Continent, and sometimes chemical retting also ; but 
whichever system is adopted, the idea is simply to separate 
the fibres from the cortical and pith-like substance with which 
they are enveloped with as little damage to strength, length, 
and colour as possible. Many substitutes for flax have come 
forward from time to time, but none have stood the test, with 
the possible exception of cotton, which seems to have made 
considerable encroachments during the past few years. China 
grass or Ramie may in the future have some influence on the 
flax industry, but it has hardly yet been felt. 

Other Vegetable Fibres.— It is useful to obtain a general 
idea of all the vegetable fibres, as one cannot foretell which 
type is likely to come more markedly into use, or what 
particular type of plant is likely to yield a fibre suitable for 
special and up-to-date requirements.^ In List VIII. the 
origins of the various " vegetable hairs " are given. In List IX. 
the physical compositions of the vegetable fibres are given. 

^ The use of Sisal hemp in the place of horsehair by the Italians is 
a case in point. 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEOWING INDUSTRIES 49 

List X. is a practically complete list of the vegetable hairs 
and fibres. 



List VIII. — Vegetable Haiks. 



Origin. 


Natural Order. 


Typical Example. 


Entirely covering, or in 
part covering the seed 

Contained in the flower . 
Lining interior of fruit . 
Twigs and leaves , 


rMalvacese 
Asclepiadacese 
1 Apocynacese 
ICEnotheracese 
( Typhaceae 
1 CyperaceiB 

Bombacese 

Filices 
.Muscinese 


Cotton. 

Madar Fibre of India 

Periwinkle. 

Willow-Herb. . 

Bullrush. 

Cotton Grass. 
( Horse-chestnut. 
I Eed Silk Cotton of India 

Ferns. 

Peat-moss Fibre. 



List IX. — Vegetable Fibres. 

(a) Fibres eoemed of Single Cells: 

Eamie — disintegrated. 

China Grass — disintegrated. 

Flax — disintegrated {i.e., too far retted). 

(6) Fibres associated in Bundles : 

Jute— unbleached. 

Flax. 

Deccan Hemp. 

Eamie — not disintegrated. 

Hemp— well prepared. 

(c) Fibres together with Medullary Eay Cells; 
Sisal Hemp. 

{d) Fibres together with Parenchyma Cells: 

Sunn Hemp. 

Mudar Fibre of India. 

(e) Fibres and Vessels: 

Phormium tenax or New Zealand Flax. 

Musa or Manila Hemp. 

Ananas or Pineapple and Banana Fibre. 

T. 



50 



TEXTILES 



List X. — Complete List of Vegetable Haies 
AND Fibres, 



Teclinical 
Name. 



Cotton. 



Kapok 

SeHial . 
Silky Cotton 



Vegetable 

Silks 



Elax 
Hemp 



White Eope 
Eibre 



Elax-like 

Fibres 

Elax and 
Hemp Sub- 
stitutes 

Jute . 



Local or General Name and 
Location. 



1. Tree Cotton . 

2. American, African, and 

Indian Cotton 
2a. Sea Island Cotton . 
2b. Peruvian or Brazil 

Cotton 

3. Asiatic Cotton 

White Silk Cotton of East 

Indies 
Eed Silk Cotton of India 
Down Tree of Armenia and 

Jamaica 
White Silk Cotton Tree of 

India 
"Mudar" or "Yercum" of 

India 
Of Bengal .... 
" Tachan " of the Argentine 
Flax or "Lin" . 
Sunn Hemp 

Sisal of India and Queens- 
land 
Manila Hemp 
Sisal Heneopien or Yucatan 

Hemp. (An aloe) 
Chinese Hemp 
Common Hemp . 
Eajmahel Hemp of Northern 

India 
Bombay or Manila Aloe of 

America and East India 
Istle of Mexico . 
Maritius Hemp of South 

America 
Buaze Fibre of Guinea and 

Nileland, etc. 
Siberian Perennial Flax 

' Spanish Broom . 
C Kendu Fibre . 

Jute of India and China 



Scientific Name. 



Gossypium arboreum. 
,, Barbadense. 

,, maritimum, etc. 

,, acum.iiiata. 

,, herbaceum. 

Eriodendron Anfractu. 

Bombax Malabaricum. 
Ochroma Lagopus. 

Cochlospermum Gossypium. 

f Calatropis gigantea. 
I ,, procera. 

Beaumontea grandiflora. 
Ohorisia insignis. 
Linum usitatissum. 
Crolalaria juncea. 
Sida rhombifolia. 

Musa textilis. 
f Agave rigida. 
|Var. longifolia. 
Abutilon, etc. 
Cannabis sativa. 
Marsdenia tenacissima. 

Agave vivipara. 

,, heteracantha. 
Fureroea gigantea. 

Securidnea longipedum culata. 

Linum perenne. 

Spartum junceum. 
Apocynum Venetum. 

Corchorus capsularis. 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING- INDUSTRIES 51 

List X, — Complete List of Vegetable Hairs 
AND Fibres — continued. 



Technical 
Name. 



Local or General Name and 
Location. 



Jute 



Jute-like 

Fibres 
China Grass 



Nettle Fibres 



Palm Leaf 
Fibres 



Special 

Fibres 



Hibiscus or 
MaUows 



Scientific Name. 



Jute of Calcutta . 

,, America . 

,, West Africa . 
Fibre from Lagos 

Tchon Ma (Temperate Zone) 
Ramie or Rhea (Torrid Zone) 
Canada Nettle Fibre . 
Tashiari (Himalayas) . 
Nilgiri Nettle 

Ban-Siu-at of India and 

Ceylon 
Ban -Rhea of Assam . 
Urera Fibre of Natal . 
Mamaki of Pacific Islands 
Rere of Pacific Islands 
Oil Palm Fibre . 

Gri-gri Fibre of West Indies 
Raffia of Madagascar and 

Africa 
Corogo Fibre of Cuba 
Plantain and Banana Fibre 

Pineapple Fibre of East 

India 
Caraguata of Paraguay 
Pingum of Jamaica and 

America 
Silk Grass of Jamaica and 

Tobago 
Madaguxar Piassava . 
Deccan Hemp. Also known 

as Kanaff and Ambari 

Hemp 

Okro 

Royelle or Red Sorelle 
Maholtine (Africa and 

America) 



Corchorus Olitorius. 
Abutilon Aviceimse. 
Honckenya ficifolia. 
Honckenya ficifolia. 

Boehmeria nivea. 
Variatum tenacissima. 
Laportea Canadensis. 
Debregeasin Hypolenca. 
Girondina heterophj'lla. 
Maontia purga. 
Laportea crenulata. 

Villebrunea intergrifolia. 
Urera tenax. 
Pipturus albidus. 
Cypholobus macrocephalus. 
Eloesis Guineensis. 

Astrocary. 
Raphia Ruffia. 

Acrocomia Lasiospatha. 
Musa sapientium var. para- 

disiaca. 
Ananas sativa. 

Bromelia Argentina. 



Bromelias or Furcroea Cubensis 

Diety osperwa Piassava. 
Hibiscus Cannabinus. 



,, esculentus. 

, , Sabdariffa. 

Abutilon periplocifolium. 

e2 



52 



TEXTILES 



List X. — Complete List of Vegetable Hairs 
AND Fibres — continued. 



Technical 
Name. 



Hibiscus or 
Mallows 



Leguminous 
Order 



Bowstring 
Hemps 



Local or General Name and 
Location. 



Ban-ochra of India, or 
"Toza" Fibre of West 
Afi'ica 

Indian Mallow Hemp . 

Dbunchi Hemp of Assam . 

Ka Hemp of China and 

Japan 
Main Fibre of India and 

Ceylon 
Konje Hemp of Zambezi, etc. 



Pangane Hemp of Pangane 
Neyanda of Ceylon 
Ife Hemp of South Africa . 
Moorva of India . 
Somali Land Fibre 



Scientific Name. 



Urena lobata. 

Abutilon Avicennse. 
Sesbama aculeata. 

Pueraria Thunbergiana. 

Banhima Vahlii. 

Sanseviera Guinensis. 



longiflora. 

Kukii. 

Zeylanica. 

cylindrica. 

Eoxburghiana, 

Ehrenbergii. 



The average lengths, practical and actual, and the average 
diameters of the principal vegetable fibres are given in 
List XI. In Fig. 5 the countries producing the more 
important vegetable fibres not specially dealt with here are 
indicated. The only fibres in these lists which call for 
special comment are hemp, jute, and the two forms of 
China grass. 

Jute is the fibre from what is essentially a torrid zone 
plant and is largely used in the carpet industry for sackings, 
while hemp is not quite so much of a torrid zone plant and 
is more particularly used for ropes, especially for shipping 
as it sinks in the water, while ropes of some other materials 



WOOL, silk:, cotton, etc., growing industries 53 

do not sink so readily and are thus dangerous to small boats 
passing by. 

List XI. — Working Lengths and Average Diameters 
THE Principle Vegetable Fibres (in inches). 



Name. 


Working 
Length. 


Average Diameters. 






inches. 


inches. 




1. 


Agave Americana or Sisal 
Hemp. Agave rigida var. 
Sisalana (True Sisal liem.p) 


36—60 


siTT — B^ average 


Tsxr 


2. 


Ananassa or Banana Fibre. 

Ananas Sativa (Pineapple 

Fibre) 
Boehmeria Nivea or China 


18—72 


S3 53(T >» 


?i^ 


3. 


up to 11 


tzVtt hJ(T » 


ffHT7 




Grass 








4. 


Boehmeria tenacissima or 
Ramie 


ditto 


ditto 




5. 


(a) Common Hemp 


48—84 


1 1 


1 




(b) Piedmontese or Giant 


up to 144 


T5ff7 -^trTT J> 


T33Z5- 




Hemp 








6. 


Corchorus olitorius or Jute. 


60—120 


xsVo — ziij >i 


TIlfTT 


7. 


Crotalaria juncea or Sunn 
Hemp 


72—144 


2 S3T) " 


t^Vtt 


8. 


Linum usitatissimum or 
Flax 


24—36 


TSBT) 55(y »' 


tttVjj 


9. 


Musa textnis or Manila 
Hemp 


up to 60 


shv s\ 




10. 


Phormium tenax or New 
Zealand Flax 


36—132 


3^2 gV M 


xh 



China grass {Boehmeria nivea) has so often been to the 
fore as a newly discovered fibre and so often proved a 
failure that one hesitates to speak of it. The Chinese, 
however, make such magnificent textures from this fibre 
that its prospects cannot be regarded as other than hopeful. 
Whether the Indian form of the fibre, ramie {Boehmeria 
tenacissima) as it is frequently called, will ever yield such 
a plastic wonderful yarn and fabric as the Chinese get from 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEOWING- INDUSTEIES 55 

China grass {Boehmeria nivea) still remains to be seen. 
Certainly the possible need for indigo planters turning their 
attention to growths other than indigo should at least favour 
a really serious trial. The gums in China grass are the 
greatest difficulty, necessitating its being prepared in a way 
entirely different from linen ; when it is satisfactorily 
prepared it is so silky that waste silk machinery is the 
most suitable for dealing with it. The Heilmann Wool comb 
has also been found to be very suitable for combing the 
slippery fibre. 

At the present moment a great revival in the New 
Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) industry is taking place. 
Whether success will attend the endeavours being made 
remains to be seen, but of this we may be certain, that 
there are still many fibres only partially exploited, and 
many which have not even been touched, which in the 
future are undoubtedly destined to play a useful part. 

Notes on the Chemical and Physical Structures of the Fibres. 
— The textile fibres of commerce naturally group themselves 
into six well-defined groups, viz., the animal fibres, the vege- 
table fibres, the animal-vegetable or insect fibres, the mineral 
fibres, the remanufactured fibres, and the artificial fibres. 

Of the first class the normal wool fibre may be taken as 
representative. It is composed of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, 
hydrogen, and sulphur,^ and when burnt emits a disagree- 
able odour largely due to the liberation of ammonia, 
which serves to distinguish it from cotton and most other 
fibres. It does not burn with a flash, as does cotton, but 
rather shrivels away, leaving a bead of burnt matter. 
Wool has marked powers of causing dissociation of certain 
metallic salts, this forming the basis of the mordanting of 

^ In what manner these elements are combined chemists are still 
uncertain. 



66 



TEXTILES 



N^ 



mm^ 



mmmfmii'mfmmmmmmm 



*^«*^**^/A>'^^**ii^iS^ft'l«*^J 



^yfg p pf^ " ^ 








Is" 

Si 



I— ( •—' 

o s 
o ® 

O 05 . 

cSTi 1 
(-1 O) • 

^ > 



^2g 



CO « 



■^ 



wools prior to dyeing. It is open to doubt as to whether the 
action of dyeing is entirely a chemical or partly a physical 
action. In the case of indigo dyeing, for example, there 
seem marked indications that the action is purely physical. 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 57 

On the other hand, this cannot be said with the same certainty 
of most other dyes. Physically, the most remarkable thing 
about wool is its exterior scale structure (clearly shown in 
Fig. 6). Various qualities of wools have this exterior scale 
structure developed in different degrees. Wools seem to 
shrink chiefly because the fibres of which yarns and fabrics 
are composed tend to revert to their original curled condition 
as grown on the sheep's back, when treated with warm water. 
Wools felt chiefly by crimping up, either on yarn kinks or 
nodes or on the curvature introduced into the threads and 
picks by the weave. Thus the wool fibre seems in itself to 
be much more stable than has been heretofore supposed, and 
milling is chiefly attributable to, as it were, the accordion 
pleating of the yarn and, more particularly, of the fabric. 
Hairs only show more or less faint indications of the scale 
structure, and consequently do not felt so readily. Upon the 
other hand, they are usually more lustrous, their uncorrugated 
and unbroken surface reflecting the light intact. In fineness 
wool fibres vary from ^^ to 3^00 ^^ *^ i^^^ ^^ diameter, but 
there is no well-defined relationship between fineness and 
length, although the Bradford quality numbers, such as 30's, 
40's, 50's, go's, 70's, etc., no doubt suppose some general 
coincidence between length and fineness of fibre. In List XII. 
the corresponding Bradford and American qualities are given. 
A year's growth in length may equal anything from 1 or 2 inches 
to 12 or 16 inches, a fair average being 7 to 8 inches. Wool, 
however, if left undipped, will grow sometimes to 40 inches in 
length, and fleeces are on record weighing 57 lbs. The length 
of the wool fibre, as will be demonstrated later, largely deter- 
mines the method of preparing and spinning it into yarn. 
Of the second class, cotton is the most representative of 



58 TEXTILES 

List XII. — Compaeative Wool Qualities. 



English. 


U.S.A. Domestic. 


U.S.A. Territory. 


Canadian. 


66's- 
60's-- 
54's- 
48"s- 
44's- 
40"s- 
36's- 
32's- 


-74' s 
-66's 
-60's 
-54's 
-48's 
-44's 
-40's 
-36's 


Full blood. 
Three-quarter blood. 
One-haK blood. 
Three-eighths blood. 
One-quarter blood. 
Low one-quarter blood. 
Common. 
Braid. 


Fine. 

Fine medium. 

Medium. 

Three-eighths blood. 

One-quarter blood. 

Low one-quarter blood. 

Common. 

Braid. 


Fine. 

Fine medium. 

Medium. 

liOW medium 

Coarse. 

Luster. 



the " seed-hairs." It is nearly pure cellulose, the formula 
for which is given by A. G. Green as 

HC(OH)— CH— CH— OH 

>o >o 
HC(OH)— CH— CH2. 
Flax and the other " stem-fibres," while largely composed of 
cellulose, are much less pure in composition, and in many cases 
by their very impurities may be distinguished from one 
another (see List IX.). 

Physically, cotton appears to take the form of a flattened, 
collapsed, twisted tube ; in fact its form is best suggested 
by a thin indiarubber tube out of which the air has been 
drawn. If unripe, the characteristic feature of twist is 
absent, and the cotton neither dyes well nor does it spin to 
advantage. In length the cotton fibre varies from | of an 
inch to If inches and in diameter averages about 1^44 of an 
inch. Fig. 7 illustrates some interesting features respecting 
the structure of the cotton fibre. 

The chief characteristic of flax as viewed under the micro- 
scope is the appearance of nodes, these, no doubt, being 
limitations of growths. Flax may readily be recognized by 
the property it possesses of developing curious cross striations 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GEO WING INDUSTEIES 69 

when treated with nitric acid and then sulphuric acid and 
iodine. Most of the vegetable fibres may be recognized by 
some special chemical reaction. Thus jute, for example, may 
be distinguished from flax, etc., by the action of an acidulated 




Pigs. 7 and 8. — Micrographs of Cotton Fibres : (a) unripe fibre. 
(b) ripe fibre, (c) mercerized fibre. Micrograph of Silk Fibre : 
(d) illustrates the twofold character of the silk fibre and the 
splitting and expansion of the fibrils which occur in some Tussah 
Silks. 

alcoholic solution of phloroglucine, flax being unchanged, 
while jute is stained an intense red. 

Of the third class silk is the representative fibre. In most 
of its chemical reactions silk is akin to wool, but there are 
differences which enable the dyer to cross-dye silk and wool 



60 TEXTILES 

goods — i.e., to dye the silk one colour and the wool another 
colour, although there are obvious limitations in this respect. 
The silk fibre consists of two distinct parts, a central portion 
and a coating of substances readily removable by hot water, 
termed the " silk gum." The central portion of " fibroin " 
has approximately the composition : Cjg H23 N5 Og. The silk 
gum, which often forms as much as 20 to 30 per cent, of the 
natural silk fibre, is usually boiled off, and only too often 
weighting added, which has a deleterious action on the wearing 
qualities of the silk. Why silk should so readily weight-up 
does not entirely admit of a satisfactory explanation. It is, 
of course, a most expensive fibre, and as weighting agents 
cost Is. per lb. and as silk sells at 12s,, weighting naturally 
pays well. Physically, silk may be defined as a long fibre 
(cocoons contain from 400 to 1,500 yards) of a twofold 
character, this being due to the silk fluid issuing from a gland 
on each side of the silkworm, the ducts from these uniting in 
the head of the worm. Under the microscope the fibre appears 
more as a glassy rod of fairly round form (Fig. 8), but from 
time to time the twofold character is perceptible in following 
along the fibre. In fineness it is from -^^ to 1^00 ^^ ^^ ii^<'^i> 
the finer being the cultivated silks and the coarser the wild 
silks. A peculiar feature of the wild tussah silks is that upon 
the fibre being cut it breaks up into a number of fibrils, forming 
a bush-like end. This makes the fibre specially suitable for 
the production of plushes. 

The mineral fibres are principally glass, tinsel, and asbestos. 
As they are of very limited application, their chemical com- 
position and physical qualities need not be fully discussed 
here. Glass naturally partakes of the qualities of ordinary 
glass, but is much more flexible than would be naturally 



WOOL, SILK, COTTON, ETC., GROWING INDUSTRIES 61 

supposed. Tinsel is made from copper, aluminium, and other 
metals drawn out, and partakes naturally of the qualities of 
the metals from which it is made. Asbestos possesses charac- 
teristics which cannot be well defined on paper. As woven 
into cloth it is irregular, lumpy, soft, and plastic. It is 
naturally mostly employed next to heated surfaces, for 
firemen's jackets, etc. 

The remanufactured fibres can only claim distinctive 
treatment from the physical point of view. They mostly 
consist of animal fibres which have been broken up in length 
and the scale structure of which has been partially damaged. 
The important quality of elasticity has also been seriously 
interfered with. 

The artificial fibres are of such importance that it has been 
deemed advisable to devote a special chapter to them. 

Notes on the Effects of Chemical Be-agents on the Textile 
Fibres. — The effects of even simple re-agents are so marked 
and so diverse that it is very necessary to have an accurate 
and extensive knowledge of such under all the varying con- 
ditions obtaining in practice. For instance, boiling water 
will disintegrate and weaken wool while it strengthens cotton. 
Again, sulphuric acid and caustic soda have very different 
actions on the cotton and wool fibres. Sulphuric acid with 
heat may be employed to disintegrate the cotton out of a 
cotton and wool fabric, while caustic soda may equally well 
be employed to dissolve the wool from the cotton. Cold 
strong caustic soda, however, may be employed to mercerize 
the cotton in wool and cotton goods without detriment to the 
wool. It is thus evident that absolute knowledge based upon 
incontrovertible experience is necessary if mistakes are to be 
avoided and the best results obtained. 



CHAPTEE III 

the mebcerized and artificial fibres employed in 
the textile industries 

Mercerized Cotton. 

The term mercerization is now applied to a process by 
means of which cotton yarn or cloth is rendered lustrous and 
silky in appearance, and the importance of the process has 
made enormously rapid development since its introduction in 
1895. The production of lustre is accompanied by con- 
siderable modifications in the structural appearance, chemical 
character, and dyeing properties of the fibre, and these 
latter effects of mercerization were first noticed and 
investigated by John Mercer in 1844. 

Mercerization without lustre is carried out by steeping the 
dry cotton in a cold concentrated solution of caustic soda 
(NaOH, 50° Tw.) for a few moments, and then well washing 
to remove the alkali. This changes the microscopic appear- 
ance of the individual cotton fibres from that of flattened 
spiral tubes with thin walls and a relatively large central 
cavity to that of more or less cylindrical non-spiral tubes 
with thicker walls. The effect in mass of this modification of 
the fibre is that the threads contract in length, become some- 
what thicker, and much stronger ; the dyeing properties 
being also considerably modified. Chemically the process 
results in the formation of a definite chemical compound of 



MECERIZED AND ARTIFICIAL FIBRES 63 

cellulose and caustic soda (CeHioOg-NaOH).^ in a state of 
hydration. On washing, this is decomposed, the" alkali 
being removed and the cellulose regenerated as a hydrate 
(CgHio05-H20)x which permanently retains the altered 
appearance and properties above noted. 

The natural shrinkage thus brought about is made use 
of in the production of crepon effects on mixed cotton and 
wool fabrics. 

Lustreing by mercerization is obtained by a very slight 
modification of Mercer's original process ; the shrinkage of 
the yarn or cloth which would naturally take place being 
prevented by mechanical means. 

" Mercerization " may also be brought about by the use 
of substances other than caustic soda, e.g., sulphuric, nitric, 
or phosphoric acid or zinc chloride ; the use of these being 
mentioned in Mercer's original patent. Sodium sulphide 
has also been proposed, but none of these bodies are of any 
practical importance in this connection. 

The Process. — The essentials of the process are very 
simple, but for economical and efficient working the follow- 
ing points require attention :— (1) The caustic soda solution 
should be used at a strength of about 55° Tw. and as cold 
as is possible without artificial cooling ; (2) the material 
must be thoroughly and uniformly impregnated ; (3) the 
material must be kept in a state of uniform tension until 
the water has decomposed the alkah cellulose ; (4) as 
much of the caustic soda as possible must be recovered ; 
(5) the cotton must be of long staple and the threads must 
not be too tightly twisted. 

Many different mercerizing machines have been intro- 
duced, and their relative success depends upon the degree 



64 TEXTILES 

to which they satisfy conditions Nos. 2, 3, and 4 specified 
above, and are economical as regards output and labour 
required. The soda recovery apparatus is another import- 
ant feature of a modern mercerizing plant. In this the 
wash waters are evaporated to mercerizing strength, and 
the recovered soda is treated with lime to recausticize 
the portion which has been converted into carbonate during 
the various operations. 

Bleaching and Mercerizing. — If cotton is bleached after 
mercerization the process of bleaching does not destroy the 
lustre of the mercerized fibre ; but this sequence of opera- 
tions offers no advantage, and the maximum lustre is always 
obtained when the material is subjected to as little treat- 
ment as possible after mercerization. Treatment with 
bleaching powder after mercerizing is also liable to rot 
the fibre by oxidation. 

The Dyeing of Mercerized Cotton. — It has already been 
mentioned that mercerized cotton has a much greater 
affinity for many mordants and dyes than has the untreated 
fibre. The effect is greatest in the case of cotton mercerized 
without tension, and diminishes somewhat as the tension 
is increased, being least marked in fully lustred cotton. 
The difference in the chemical properties of mercerized and 
unmercerized cotton is the main cause of their different 
behaviour in dyeing, but structural or physical change has 
also a considerable effect. 

Irregular mercerization is a frequent cause of irregular 
dyeing, and special precautions must be taken when the 
cotton is subsequently to be dyed in pale shades. Some 
further information regarding the dyeing properties of 
mercerized cotton will be found in the next chapter, p. 87. 



MEECERIZED AND ARTIFICIAL FIBRES 65 

Crimp effects on Cotton are obtained by mercerizing cotton 
cloth in stripes or other patterns by a printing process, the 
natural shrinkage of the mercerized portion producing the 
crimp. If printed and mercerized under tension, lustre 
patterns may be obtained on cotton cloth. 

Crepon effects on Union Cloth. — Wool fibre is practically 
unaffected by caustic soda of mercerizing strength, and if 
suitably woven with cotton and the fabric mercerized, the 
shrinkage of the cotton throws up the wool into loops or 
knots. Silk-cotton unions may be similarly treated, but 
require great care in manipulation. To ensure that the wool 
or silk is not injured it is usual to artificially cool the caustic 
solution before and during use. 

The Schreiner Finish. — This process of increasing the 
lustre of cotton is so closely connected with mercerizing 
lustre from the practical standpoint that mention should 
be made of it here. It consists in subjecting cotton cloth to 
the action of an engraved steel roller under great pressure. 
The engraving consists of very fine serrations, numbering 
400 to 700 per inch, and these produce optically reflecting 
surfaces upon the threads which very greatly enhance the 
lustre of the material. Cotton lustred by mercerization 
and subsequently treated with the Schreiner calender rivals 
silk in appearance. 

The Production of Mercerized Cotton is one of the most 
important recent developments in the textile trade, having 
practically enriched it with a new fibre almost as lustrous 
as silk, and much less costly. One of the main defects of 
mercerized cotton is that its lack of elasticity renders fabrics 
made from it very liable to crease. 

Test for Mercerized Cotton. — A solution of iodine in 

T. F 



66 TEXTILES 

saturated potassium iodide solution colours both ordinary 
and mercerized cotton a deep brown. On washing with 
water, the colour of mercerized cotton changes to a blue black, 
which fades very slowly on long washing, whereas ordinary 
cotton rapidly becomes white on washing. 

Aetificial Silk. 

The silk fibre, consisting of the solidified fluid of the 
silk glands of the worm, is devoid of cellular structure. 
"Wool and cotton, on the other hand, are highly organized 
fibres from the structural standpoint, being composed of a 
vast number of individual cells built up in a definite and 
orderly manner. It is thus impossible to conceive of the 
mechanical production of a fibre resembling wool or cotton 
in character ; but in its broadest outline the problem of the 
production of a fibre similar to silk is not a dijfficult one. 

The problem involves two main features — first, the 
production of a viscous liquid analogous to that naturally 
existing in the silkworm glands, and, secondly, the mechanical 
conversion of this into fine fibres. 

The second part of the problem offers no insuperable 
difficulties ; in fact artificial silk fibres are now produced 
which are much finer than those of natural silk (Thiele 
silk). 

The composition of the viscous liquid may be chemically 
similar to natural silk or may be of an entirely different 
character. The first artificial filament which resembled 
silk in appearance was spun glass, from which fabrics of 
brilliant lustre and considerable softness may be produced. 
These are, however, of little value, since the fabric rapidly 
disintegrates on account of the brittle nature of the fibre. 



MERCERIZED AND ARTIFICIAL FIBRES 67 

Vanduara Silk is obtained by using gelatine as a basis, 
the threads, after spinning, being treated with formaldehyde 
to render them insoluble in water. It is a beautifully 
lustrous fibre, and fairly strong and elastic in the dry 
condition, but if wetted it becomes extremely tender. It is 
now little, if at all, used. 

Gelatine may also be rendered insoluble by the combined 
action of chromic acid and light, and this has formed the 
basis of an artificial silk process ; but no practical success 
has been achieved on these lines. 

Cellulose Silk.— All the commercially produced artificial 
silks are obtained by using some form of cellulose as a basis, 
and in this connection may be mentioned the names of De 
Chardonnet, Pauly, Lehner, Vivier, Thiele, Cross, Bevan, Steam 
and Bronnert silks. These are known under such names as 
" Collodion silks" " Glauzstqff" " Lustro-cellulose" and Cour- 
taulds' or " Viscose silk" 

Cellulose, the chemical basis of cotton, linen, wood, and 
the structural portion of vegetable growth generally, is 
chemically a very inert substance, and only a few ways of 
dissolving it are known. 

(1) When converted into nitro-cellulose by treatment with 
nitric acid, cellulose becomes soluble in alcohol-ether. The 
various " collodion " silks are thus produced. 

(2) Cellulose is soluble in a concentrated solution of zinc 
chloride, or 

(3) In an ammoniacal solution of hydrated oxide of copper. 

(4) If cotton is mercerized with caustic soda and treated 
with carbon disulphide while still saturated with the alkali, 
it forms a new chemical compound (cellulose thiocarbonate) 
which is soluble in water ; the solution being known as 
" viscose." 

F 2 



68 TEXTILES 

(5) Acetates of cellulose may be produced which are soluble 
in various solvents. 

Each of these five methods of dissolving cellulose forms the 
basis of a commercial process of manufacturing artificial silk. 

(1) Collodion Silk. — This was the original artificial silk, 
and was first patented by de Chardonnet in 1886, after sur- 
mounting many difficulties, due chiefly to the inflammability 
and lack of strength of the fibre. The chief names connected 
with this product are those of De Chardonnet, Lehner, and 
Vivier. 

(2) Brcmnert Silk is made from a zinc chloride solution 
of cellulose, but this process has not made such rapid develop- 
ment as 

(3) The Cwprammonium ^process, which yields the Pauly, 
Linkmayer, and Thiele silks, which latter is, as regards appear- 
ance and handle, almost indistinguishable from natural silk. 

(4) The Viscose Silk of Cross, Bevan and Stearn is now of 
chief importance. Its production has been mainly developed 
by Messrs. Courtaulds', who manufacture it on a very large 
scale. The total world's production of artificial silk is now 
well over 10,000 tons per annum, of which probably 85 per 
cent, is Viscose silk. 

(5) Acetate Silk has recently (1920) been placed on the 
market by the British Cellulose Co., Ltd. 

Properties of Artificial Silk. — The characteristic properties 
of natural silk which render it so much esteemed as a textile 
material are its beautiful lustre, softness, elasticity, strength, 
and covering power, and the ease with which it can be dyed, 
With regard to lustre the artificial silks exceed the natural 
fibre, some having almost an undesirable metallic lustre. In 
softness and general handle certain varieties of artificial silk 
are somewhat deficient, but this defect has been overcome by 



MERCEEIZED AND ARTIFICIAL FIBRES 69 

building up the thread from a large number of fine filaments, so 
that a thread of 40 denier may contain 40 to 80 of such 
filaments. Such artificial silks are equal to natural silk in 
softness and covering power. All artificial silks need special 
care in winding and in the loom. 

In elasticity and strength artificial silks are somewhat defi- 
cient even when dry, and when wetted the defect is greatly 
accentuated. This renders careful treatment in dyeing very 
necessary. 

Dyeing Properties. — The various artificial silks differ con- 
siderably in dyeing properties. Collodion silks dye for the 
most part similarly to natural silk, while Pauly, Linkmayer, 
and Thiele silks and Viscose silk behave much more like 
cotton (see Chapter IV.). 

Fabrics entirely composed of artificial silk have only 
recently been successfully produced, but it has for some time 
been largely used as weft yarn, and still more largely in the 
production of plushes and trimmings. 



CHAPTEE IV 

THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 

Dyeing processes vary in character according to the 
textile material operated upon and the nature and proper- 
ties of the colour desired. Thus, e.g., the production of 
scarlet shades on wool and on cotton requires entirely 
different processes, and the method used in producing a 
blue on wool with indigo is quite distinct in character from 
that required for dyeing logwood black. 

Many (but by no means all) of the processes used in cotton 
dyeing are carried out without heat. Silk is usually dyed 
in lukewarm baths, while wool dyeing processes are usually 
conducted in boiling baths. Silk is almost invariably dyed 
in the hank or warp ; cotton usually in the form of hank, cop 
(or bobbins), warp, or cloth ; while wool is dyed at all stages 
of manufacture, viz., as loose wool, sliver, hank, warp 
(occasionally), and in piece. 

The various dyeing materials are applied to the fibre in 
aqueous solution, from which they are withdrawn either 
partially or completely by simple absorption or by some 
chemical action of the fibre. So-called " dry dyeing " is a 
special process used by garment dyers in which benzine or 
other similar organic solvent is employed instead of water. 
The object of the process is to avoid the removal of the 
stiffening materials present in the fabrics. 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 71 

The number of distinct dyes now on the market is very 
large (upwards of 1,000), and with a few notable exceptions 
they are all chemically derived from coal tar products. Of 
the natural dyes still commercially used, indigo and logwood 
are much the most important ; but a few others, such as 
cochineal, fustic, and orchil, find a more limited application. 

In addition to the dyestuff itself, various chemical bodies 
are required in dyeing operations, some being essential 
constituents of the ultimate dyed colour (mordants), and 
others merely aiding the solution or fixation of the dye 
(assistants). In this short summary of dyeing operations 
no exhaustive treatment either of dyestuffs, mordants, or 
assistants is possible ; but many examples of each will be 
incidentally mentioned. 

Mordants. — This term is applied to substances which 
serve a double purpose, viz., they unite both with the fibre 
and with the colouring matter, and thus fix the latter on 
the fibre, and at the same time the new chemical compound 
formed by mordant and dyestuff has frequently an entirely 
different colour to that of the dyestuff itself, being in fact 
the real dye. The mordant is usually applied in a separate 
process before dyeing; but with an increasing number of 
dyes the mordanting comes last, and in some cases the 
mordant and dye are used together. The chemical nature 
of the mordant must depend upon that of the dyestuff. 
In wool dyeing certain metallic salts are largely used 
(bichromate of potash, alum, sulphates of copper and iron), 
whereas in cotton dyeing tannin matters are largely used as 
mordants for the basic dyes. In dyeing silk, dyestuffs 
which do not require mordants are chiefly employed. 

Assistants. — A large variety of acids, alkalis, and salts 



72 TEXTILES 

are used for various purposes in dyeing. The acids chiefly 
employed are sulphuric (vitriol), acetic, and formic, all of 
which are used with acid dyes. Carbonate of soda (soda 
ash), caustic soda, and ammonia are the chief alkalis used, 
whilst sodium chloride (common salt), sodium sulphate 
(Glauber's salt), and many other salts are employed in various 
cases as additions to the dye-bath. The role of assistants 
is very varied and cannot be shortly summarized. 

Dyestuffs. — In view of the enormous number of dyestuffs 
it is impossible to deal with them without adopting some 
method of classification. Various methods of classification 
may be adopted, but that based on method of application is 
the most convenient for the present purpose, and this dis- 
tinguishes the following groups : — (1) Mordant dyes ; (2) Acid- 
mordant dyes ; (3) Acid dyes ; (4) Direct dyes ; (5) Basic dyes ; 
(6) Dyes applied by special processes. 

(1) Mordant dyes. — Many dyes of this group are " fast 
dyes," and are extremely resistant to the action of the light 
and to such processes as washing and milling (fulling). 
They must be used in conjunction with some metallic mor- 
dant, such as bichromate of potash or alum, and can be 
applied to all fibres, though they are chiefly used in wool 
dyeing. 

Example. — Boil the wool for one to two hours in a solution 
of 3 per cent, bichromate of potash (calculated on the weight 
of the wool) ; wash and boil in a separate bath with the 
dyestuff. 

Dyes of this group are not, as a rule, capable of producing 
brilliant colours, being chiefly used for blacks, navies, browns, 
olives, etc. The group includes the alizarin, anthracene, 
chrome and diamond dyes, logwood, madder, and many 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 73 

others. Cochineal also belongs to this group ; in conjunction 
with tin mordant it produces a brilliant scarlet colour, 

(2) Acid-mordant dyes. — These dyestuffs have very 
similar properties to the last group, but are applicable only 
to wool. They are of increasing importance and include 
the acid-alizarin and acid-anthracene dyes, the cloth reds, 
etc. They are applied in an acid bath and subsequently 
treated with a metallic mordant. 

(3) Acid dyes are largely used both in wool and silk 
dyeing, but are not applicable to cotton. They are not 
used in conjunction with mordants, but are dyed direct 
with the addition of 2 to 4 per cent, (sulphuric or formic) acid 
to the dye-bath. They vary considerably in regard to 
fastness to light, some being very fast and others com- 
paratively fugitive ; but as a class they are not so fast as 
groups (1) and (2). They are also more readily affected by 
washing and milling (fulling). 

This group is a very numerous one and comprises a 
complete range of shades from the brightest primary 
colours to black. 

(4) The Direct dyes. — Members of this group have the 
special property of dyeing cotton without the aid of any 
mordant. Many of them are also used on wool, on which 
fibre they produce shades which are fast to milling. They 
are also used on silk. The method of apphcation to any 
fibre is very simple, the only addition required being salt or 
Glauber's salt, with or without a little soda ash. By certain 
methods of after-treatment (" saddening " and " developing ") 
some of these dyes are rendered much faster than when dyed 
in the direct manner. Practically the same complete range 
of shades is obtainable with the direct dyes as with the acid 
colours. 



74 TEXTILES 

(5) The Basic Colours. — This group is numerically 
smaller, and in range of colour less extensive, than the 
groups of mordant, acid, or direct- dyes. It includes, how- 
ever, the most brilliant dyes known, rhodamine pink, aura- 
mine yellow, malachite green, methylene blue, magenta, 
and methyl violet being well-known examples. The basic 
dyes (with few exceptions) are not used on wool, since they 
are apt to rub (smear). On silk they are dyed direct, with 
the addition of a little soap, but cotton requires to be pre- 
viously mordanted with tannic acid or some form of tannin 
matter. The most serious defect of this group of dyes, as 
a class, is that they are fugitive to light. 

(6) Dyes applied hy special processes. — Indigo. — This is 
the most important of all dyestuffs, still retaining its pre- 
eminence in spite of the large number of competitors and 
substitutes which have been introduced. It is used very 
largely both on v/ool and on cotton materials, but less com- 
monly on silk. Being quite insoluble in water, a special 
method of application is necessary, and this is the same in 
principle whether used for wool or cotton. The process is 
based upon the fact that when indigo is acted upon by what 
are chemically known as reducing agents, the blue in- 
soluble substance is converted into a colourless body which 
is soluble in alkalis. The necessary ingredients in an 
indigo vat are thus the indigo, some alkali (lime or soda), 
and some reducing agent ; and the various kinds of vats in 
use differ chiefly in the nature of the latter. In the 
"woad vat," which is largely used in the dyeing of wool 
materials, the reduction is due to a specific bacterium which 
is introduced by the woad ; certain other substances, such as 
bran, madder, molasses, etc., being also necessary to supply 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 75 

foodstuff for the bacteria. This vat is used warm, and 
when once " set " may remain in use for several months, 
being systematically replenished with indigo, etc. The 
" hydrosulphite vat " contains indigo, lime (or soda), and 
hydro sulphite of soda, and may be used warm (for wool) or 
cold (for cotton). The "copperas vat" is made up with 
indigo, lime, and copperas (ferrous sulphate) and is used for 
cotton. 

The process of dyeing in the indigo vat consists in 
saturating the material with the vat liquor and, after 
squeezing out the excess, exposing the material to the air, 
when the colourless reduced indigo becomes rapidly 
re-oxidized on the fibre into the original blue indigo. 

Synthetic or "artificial " indigo, being chemically iden- 
tical with natural indigo, is applied in the same manner. 
There are now several disthict but closely associated 
synthetical dyestuffs in addition to the true " artificial 
indigo." They are all dyed in similar manner, but yield a 
variety of blue, purple, red and brown shades. 

In dyeing dark indigo blues on wool materials it is usual 
to " bottom " the wool with some other (cheaj)er) colouring 
matter before dyeing in the vat. Frequently also the 
indigo is " filled up " or " topped " after vatting, either with 
the same object or in order to impart a "bloom " to the 
colour. Heavy shades of pure vat blue are rarely met 
with. 

Well-dyed indigo vat blue produces extremely fast shades 
on wool. It retains its fine bloom and brilliancy almost 
indefinitely, and washing does not affect it in the least. It 
also withstands sea air, but of course, if "bottomed" or 
"topped," the associated dyestuffs may be affected. The 



76 TEXTILES 

one defect of vat blue is that the colour " rubs off." This 
cannot be entirely prevented, but the more sldlfullj^ the 
dyeing process is carried out the less noticeable is the 
defect. Indigo blue is less fast to light on cotton than on 
wool. 

The Vat dyes. — This term is applied to an important 
group of modern dyes which, like indigo, are applied in the 
reduced condition by the vat method. There are two sub- 
groups, the " indigoid " and the " anthracene " vat dyes, 
the former being chemically closely related to indigo and the 
latter to the alizarin dyes. Although some of them may be 
applied to wool, they are of the most value as cotton dyes, as 
by their use it is possible to produce a wide range of practically 
" fadeless " colours. 

The Sulphide dyes are of great importance for the pro- 
duction of " fast colours " on cotton. The group includes 
many blacks, blues, dark greens, browns, and yellows, but at 
present a good red of this series has not been put on the market. 
They are most conveniently dyed on warps, but are also used 
on pieces and hanks. The general method of application is 
to dissolve the dyes (which are insoluble in water) in a solution 
of sodium sulphide, some sodium carbonate and Glauber's 
salt being also frequently used in the dye-bath. The baths 
are used warm and dyeing must take place below the surface 
of the liquor. 

A very serious defect of the sulphide dyes is that cotton 
dyed with them is liable to become tender (rotten) on 
storing. This is due to the slow development of sulphuric 
acid by oxidation of the sulphur associated with the 
dyestuff. The defect is most liable to occur in stoved union 
goods. The tendering may be prevented by any treatment 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 77 

which leaves the goods in a permanently alkaline condition. 
The sulphide dyes are fast to " cross-dyeing " and to 
alkalies and milling. 

Aniline black is another dye which requires a special 
method of application, being of such an insoluble and 
chemically resistant nature that the only practicable method 
of using it is to actually produce it on the fibre by suitable 
chemical reactions. It is the most brilliant, dense, and 
permanent black which can be produced on cotton, and is 
dyed, chiefly on cotton yarn and pieces, in large amount. It is 
little used on wool or silk. Aniline black is obtained by the 
oxidation of aniline, a basic substance (C6H5*NH2) produced 
from the coal tar hydrocarbon benzene (CeHe). A bath is 
prepared containing aniline oil, hydrochloric (or other) 
acid, and some suitable oxidizing agent. The cotton is 
saturated with this liquor and then " aged " (hung in a 
warm, moist atmosphere) or otherwise subjected to oxidizing 
conditions. 

As in the case of indigo, aniline black is apt to " rub off " 
if badly dyed. Another defect which can be avoided by 
skilful dyeing (but only in this manner) is tendering of the 
fibre. This may be due either to undue acidity of the bath 
or to oxidation of the fibre. 

Aniline black is a very "fast" colour. It withstands 
"cross-dyeing " perfectly and is also fast to light, washing, 
milling, etc. If dyed in a special manner it is unaffected 
by the very severe processes involved in cotton bleaching 
("bleaching black"). It is most readily attacked by 
reducing agents, such as sulphurous acid, which turn it 
green, and long exposure to the atmosphere of a room 
where gas is burnt may thus cause " greening." 



78 TEXTILES 

The Ingrain dyes. — The term " ingrain " as applied to 
dyes is a very old one. It is now used to designate a 
certain series of cotton dyes^chiefly reds — which are 
produced on the fibre. 

Para (or paranitraniline) red is produced on yarn, warps 
or pieces, by first impregnating the cotton with a colourless 
solution of (3 naphthol, drying and " developing " by 
passing through a solution of paranitraniline treated with 
nitrous acid. The red is produced instantaneously. It is 
a very brilliant and fairly fast colour and is largely used as a 
substitute for Turkey red. 

Primuline red is a somewhat similar dye, but is produced 
in the reverse way. The cotton in this case is dyed with 
primuline (a direct yellow dye), then treated with nitrous 
acid, and the yellow colour " developed " into a red by 
treatment with ^ naphthol. 

There are also black, blue, purple, brown, and yellow 
dyes belonging to this series, but they are not much used. 

Turkey red has somewhat of the same pre-eminence as a 
red on cotton that indigo vat blue has on wool. Its pro- 
duction is a special branch of dyeing, carried on in special 
works in a few districts (Manchester and Glasgow). It 
really belongs to the class of mordant dyes, but is produced 
in such a special manner that it may more fittingly be 
mentioned in the section of " special dyes." The cotton, 
in yarn or piece goods form, is first treated with olive or 
castor oil, then mordanted with alumina, and finally dyed 
with alizarin. Many subsidiary processes are necessary 
in order to thoroughly fix the colour and develop its full 
brilliancy. Well dyed Turkey red is a bright scarlet 
colour and is very fast to all infiuences. 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 79 

Water used in Dyeing. 

In no industry is a plentiful supply of pure soft water of 
more importance than in dyeing, the use of unsuitable 
water resulting not only in considerable waste of material, 
but also in bad work. Perfectly pure water is, however, 
never available in sufficient quantity, since it is not 
found in natural sources, and thus the difference in the 
quality of various water supplies is largely one of degree. 
The chief impurities naturally present in water are the 
carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides of lime and magnesium, 
which impart to the water the property of forming a curdy 
scum with soap, usually termed "bardness." A "soft" 
water is most suitable for dyeing, but " permanent hard- 
ness," which is due to sulphates and chlorides, is much 
less harmful in dyeing than the "temporary hardness" 
caused by carbonates. In wool scouring or any other 
process in which soap is used, both kinds of hardness are 
equally injurious, and the lime-soap curd which is produced 
adheres to the fibre and causes much subsequent trouble 
and damage in dyeing and finishing operations. The 
wastefulness of hard water is well illustrated by the fact 
that 1,000 gallons of water of only 10° hardness will 
destroy and render not only useless, but dangerous, 15 to 
20 lbs. of ordinary soap. 

Iron is a not infrequent impurity in water supplies, 
particularly such as are obtained from coal measures, and 
water containing iron is totally unfit for use in a dye-house, 
since iron has a dulling and darliening effect on many dyes 

Water of less than 5° of hardness may be considered as 
of good quality for dyeing, particularly if the hardness 



80 TEXTILES 

is mainly "permanent." If the only available supply 
exceeds 8° or 10° in hardness it should be " softened" by 
chemical treatment before use. This can usually be done 
at a cost not exceeding M. to 6c/. per 1,000 gallons. 

The organic impurities in water have usually little effect 
on dyeing processes, unless the water is contaminated with 
the refuse from other works. 

Eeference may also be made to the desirability of using 
soft water for steam-raising in order to prevent the produc- 
tion of " boiler scale." 



Interdependence of Processes. 

In order to produce the best possible result it is not only 
necessary that the raw material of which a textile fabric is 
composed should be of good quality, but that all the various 
operations involved in its manufacture should be carried 
out with proper skill and care and with a due regard to 
each other. Thus the carder or comber, the spinner, the 
manufacturer, the dyer, and the finisher should each work 
with a sufficient knowledge of the bearing of his particular 
operation on the other processes of manufacture. 

The high degree of specialization in the textile trade in 
some districts renders co-operation between the various 
branches specially necessary and at the same time specially 
difficult. This frequently causes great trouble to the dyer 
who may be merely instructed to match a given shade 
without being given information as to the processes which 
the material will afterwards undergo. This lack of 
information makes it impossible for him to select the most 
suitable method of dyeing to fit the conditions, and an 



THE DYEING OP TEXTILE MATERIALS 81 

element of risk is introduced which is entirely unnecessary 
and should be eliminated. 



Processes Preliminary to Dyeing. 

In order that bright, clear, and fast colours may be 
produced in dyeing it is necessary that the textile material, 
whatever its character, should be thoroughly cleansed from 
all grease, dirt, and other impurities before the dyeing 
process is carried out. The treatment requisite for this 
varies. In the case of wool the cleansing process is known 
as "scouring," while the "bleaching" operation has a 
very similar object in the case of cotton, and silk is 
" boiled-off." 

Wool Scouring. — Eaw wool is naturally covered with a 
preservative greasy matter, termed " yolk," to which also 
adheres a considerable quantity of sand, dirt, and other 
foreign matter ; the amount of pure wool varying from 30 
to 80 per cent, of the weight of raw wool. The " scouring " 
or " washing " of raw wool has the object of removing 
these impurities, and the process is carried out by treating 
the wool with warm (not hot) solutions of soap with the 
addition of ammonia or carbonate of soda. This emulsifies 
the yolk, the sand, etc., being then readily washed away. 
Scoured wool is usually oiled before carding or combing, 
and this oil, together with dirt, etc., contracted during the 
various stages of manufacture, must be removed by a second 
scouring operation before yarn or piece dyeing. 

Efficient scouring has a great influence on the dyer's 
work and on the final appearance and quality of the pieces. 
If wool is not properly scoured the colour is apt to be dull 



82 TEXTILES 

and to " rub off," or may be uneven or show dark or light 
spots, bars or selvedges. On the other hand, if the scouring 
is too severe the fibre has a diminished lustre, a yellowish 
colour, and a harsh feel. 

" Boiling-off" Silk. — This operation consists in treating 
the raw silk in (at least) two successive soap baths ; the 
first one being used at a medium temperature, and the 
second boiling. It has the object of developing the lustre 
and soft feel of the silk by removing the " silk gum " with 
which the fibre is naturally encrusted. Silk may, however, 
be dyed " in the gum " or only partially boiled-off. 

Cotton Bleaching. — The amount of impurity naturally 
present in raw cotton is small, but the raw fibre is not in a 
suitable state to be dyed, as the "cotton wax" present 
renders the fibre very non-absorbent. " Bleaching for 
white " is carried out by treating the raw cotton successively 
with boiling lime-water, boiling caustic soda, and cold 
dilute bleaching powder solution, with intermediate treat- 
ments with cold dilute acid and many washings. Goods 
which are to be dyed need not be treated with bleaching 
powder, excepting in the case of pale and delicate shades, 
but the earlier operations are always necessary. 

Wool Dyeing Processes. 

When a fabric entirely composed of wool is dyed in 
the piece it is obvious that a plain colour only can be 
obtained. If the design of the cloth includes differently 
coloured threads, the wool must be dyed before weaving, 
e.g., as yarn ; while certain effects (mixtures, etc.) can only 
be obtained by spinning together differently coloured ^ires 
into the same yarn. 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATEEIALS 83 

This last-mentioned case necessitates the dyeing of the 
wool in the form of sliver or of loose wool. 

The form in which the wool is dyed (whether as loose 
wool, sliver, yarn, or cloth) greatly influences the choice 
of dyes to be used. Some dyes produce good, fast 
shades, but tend to dye unevenly ; and such may be used 
for loose wool where any irregularity disappears in carding, 
spinning, etc., but are inadmissible in piece dyeing where 
absolute evenness of shade is essential. On the other 
hand, the cloth is not scoured after piece dyeing, and, 
therefore, dyes may be used which would be injured by the 
scouring process. Loose wool, however, must be dyed with 
dyes which will withstand scouring. 

Dyeing of Loose Wool.— Loose wool may be dyed in square 
wood or stone vats heated by steam pipes, or in circular 
iron vats heated externally by fire. The wool must be 
stirred occasionally with poles to equalize the action of the 
dye liquor, but since this tends to felt it, discretion is 
necessary. Loose wool is now usually dyed by packing it 
into perforated receptacles which are either moved about in 
the hot liquor or through which the liquor is circulated by 
means of a pump. These newer mechanical processes are 
now largely used, as they leave the fibre in a free and open 
condition. 

Slublaing (Sliver). — After carding or combing, the thin 
film of wool fibre is " condensed " into a ribbon of sliver, 
and may be dyed in this condition either in the form of 
hanks or wound into balls (tops). At this stage of yarn 
production the fibres have little coherence, and the hanks 
or tops require careful treatment. Tops are dyed in an 
apparatus in which mechanical circulation of the liquor is 

g2 



84 TEXTILES 

provided for, but hanks of slubbing may be treated in the 
same way as yarn. 

Yarn Dyeing. — Yarn may be dyed by hand or by machine. 
In the hand method the hanks are hung on sticks which 
rest across oblong vats containing the dye Hquor. The 
hanks are systematically moved about in the liquor and 
pulled over the sticks. Dyeing machines are also largely 
employed, the hanks being mechanically moved about in 
the liquor, or the liquor mechanically circulated through 
the hanks. 

Piece Dyeing. — In this case revolving rollers cause the 
pieces to travel through or move about in the dye liquors. 
The pieces run either at full breadth (dyeing in oj)en 
width) or gathered together as a thick strand (dyeing in 
rope form), according to the nature of the material. 

" Woaded Colours." — This term implies that the wool has 
been dyed in the indigo vat. A woaded blue should be 
dyed with indigo alone, but in the case of woaded blacks, 
greens, and browns the indigo is necessarily combined with 
other dyes. The term has lost most of its significance since 
the introduction of the alizarin and other fast dyes. 

Blacks on Wool. — Logicood blacks are very usual. The 
wool is mordanted with bichromate of potash and dyed 
with logwood in a separate bath, a small amount of yellow 
dye being used to neutralize the blue of the logwood. 
Beautiful blacks are thus produced, but they have the 
great defect of turning greenish during long wear of the 
material. Alizarin blacks are obtained by dyeing with a 
mixture of alizarin dyes or chrome mordant. They do not 
" green " in wear. Both logwood and alizarin blacks are fast 
to milling and scouring. Acid-mordant blacks (anthracene 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATEEIALS 85 

acid black, diamond black, etc.) are dyed with the addition 
of acid and are afterwards chromed. They are fast to all 
influences. Acid blacks, such as naphthylamine and 
Victoria black, are dyed with the addition of sulphuric acid. 
They are fairly fast to light, but are not suitable for goods 
which are to be heavily milled. 

Dark Blues, Greens, and Browns on Wool. — These may be 
obtained by using dyes of any of the various groups 
mentioned under blacks. 

Bright Blues, Greens, Keds, Yellows, and Fancy Colours are 
chiefly dyed with acid dyes. 

Cotton Dyeing Processes. 

Cotton is mainly dyed in the form of hanks of yarn and 
warps, less usually as piece goods. The dyeing of cotton 
on spools or cops is now rapidly extending, two types of 
machines being in use. In one type the cops are placed 
on perforated or grooved skewers and the dye liquor forced 
through by a pump (skewer dyeing). In the other type 
the cops are closely packed in a tank, compressed, and 
the liquor forced completely through the whole mass (pack 
dyeing). In warp dyeing a number of warps pass side by 
side continuously through a series of vats containing the 
necessary mordanting or dyeing liquors. 

Occasionally weft yarn is dyed in lengths, as in the case 
of warps the yarn being subsequently rewound on to weft 
bobbins. This cannot be recommended, as it is not unusual 
for warps to be somewhat darker in colour at one end than 
at the other, and when rewound this may produce a stripy 
effect in the piece. Cotton in the form of piece goods is 
dyed in the open width or rope form, usually the former. 



86 TEXTILES 

The dyeing properties of cotton are quite different from 
those of wool, and therefore the processes and materials 
used in the two cases are to a large extent different. Cotton 
has little affinity for metallic mordants or for dyes belong- 
ing to the mordant, acid, or basic groups. It has, how- 
ever, a definite affinity for tannic acid and for colouring 
matters belonging to the class known as " direct dyes." 
Cotton is dyed largely with this group, but the dyed colours, 
though bright and in some cases fast to light, are not fast 
to washing with soap. Many of these direct dyes are also 
affected by acids. A considerable number (but not all) of 
the direct dyes may be rendered satisfactorily fast by an 
after-treatment with metaUic salts or by " diazotizing and 
developing," this applying principally to dark browns, 
blues, and blacks. 

Fast Blacks on Cotton. — There are two ways of producing 
exceedingly fast blacks on cotton, viz., by dyeing it an 
" aniline black " or with a " sulphide black." Both are 
largely used, the latter chiefly for the warps of pieces 
which are afterwards "cross-dyed" (see Union Dyeing). 
Aniline black is somewhat more costly than a black pro- 
duced by sulphide dyes, but is considered superior in 
body, tone, and brilliancy. 

Fast Colours on Cotton. — Dark blues, browns, and greens, 
and a variety of greys, buffs, and. pale fancy shades, are 
obtained by means of vat dyes (see p. 76) and sulphide dyes, but 
there is as yet no bright red belonging to these groups. The 
fastest bright red on cotton is Turkey red, which is obtained by 
oiling the cotton, then mordanting with alum and dyeing with 
alizarin. Para red (paranitraniline red) is also very bright 
and fairly fast. It is produced by saturating the cotton 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATEEIALS 87 

with an alkaline solution of beta-naphthol, then drying 
and passing into a diazotized solution of paranitraniline. 
In this case, as in aniline black, the dye is actually formed 
on the fibre. 

Cotton is also largely dyed with indigo in a similar 
manner to wool, but the vat is used cold and a chemical 
reducing agent is used (ferrous sulphate or sodium hydro- 
sulphite). 

Fast browns, drabs, etc., are largely dyed with catechu. 

Basic Colours on Cotton. — These dyes are fixed on cotton 
by mordanting the fibre in a solution of some tannin 
matter (sumach or myrabolans), then " fixing " in a solu- 
tion of some suitable metallic salt (tartar emetic or stannic 
chloride), and finally dyeing. The basic colours comprise 
a series of extremely bright reds, yellows, blues, greens, and 
violets, as well as many duller colours. As a class they 
are fugitive to light, but there are exceptions to this. 

Dyeing of Mercerized Cotton. — The general dyeing proper- 
ties of mercerized cotton are similar to those of ordinary 
cotton, but the affinity of mercerized cotton for the direct 
dyes, the sulphide dyes, indigo, and para red is much 
greater, and the shades obtained by using a certain strength 
of dye solution are much deeper and richer. On the other 
hand, mercerized cotton dyes less easily than ordinary 
cotton with basic colours. If the cotton has not been 
evenly mercerized it is impossible to produce level shades in 
dyeing. 

Union Dyeing Processes. 
Union goods composed of cotton and wool require special 
methods of dyeing. A common process is to dye the cotton 



88 TEXTILES 

in the warp, the dyed cotton being then woven with un- 
dyed wool weft. The pieces are then "cross-dyed" with 
acid dyes which colour the wool only. The cotton warjD 
must, of course, be dyed with colouring matters (such as 
the sulphide dyes) which are unaffected by boiling dilute 
acid. Another process largely made use of in low-class 
unions is to first dye the wool in the piece with acid 
dyes, and then to "fill up " the cotton by mordanting with 
tannin and dyeing with a basic colour, the whole of the 
cotton treatment being conducted in the cold in order to 
avoid staining the wool. When a uniform shade is 
required on both fibres the union material may be dyed with 
direct dyes which colour both wool and cotton. 

Silk Dyeing Processes. 

Silk is usually dyed in hank form ; and closely associated 
with the dyeing is the so-called weighting process. Silk 
has the peculiar property of absorbing certain metallic 
salts and other bodies (tannin, glucose, etc.) to an enormous 
extent without injury to its lustre, and by suitable treat- 
ment it can in this manner be weighted to such a degree 
that 1 lb. of raw silk produces 2 to 3 lbs. of dyed and 
weighted silk. This weighting process is very general, 25 
to 50 per cent, of added weight being usual. The practice is 
greatly to be deprecated when carried to excess, as it injures 
the wearing properties of the fibre. Pure silk has excellent 
lasting properties, but over- weighted silk will gradually become 
rotten merely by storage. 

Wild Silk (Tussur Silk) is very difficult to dye, and a 
good black on tussur can only be produced by a few 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATERIALS 89 

dyers. It dyes readily with basic dyes and fairly well 
with acid dyes. 

Reeled Silk (Mulberry Silk) has, generally speaking, similar 
dyeing properties to wool. It is chiefly dyed at about 80° C 
with acid or basic dyes without mordant, and there is no 
diflficulty in obtaining a variety of brilliant colours on this 
fibre. In boiling baths wool dyes deeper colours than silk, 
but at low temperatures the relative affinity is reversed, and 
an intermediate temperature may therefore be usually found 
(varying with each dye) at which the two fibres dye 
equally. 

Silk is rarely dyed with indigo or with mordant dyes, 
excepting in the case of blacks. 

The dyeing of black silk constitutes a special branch 
of the dyeing trade and needs considerable experience. 

The Dyeing of Artificial Silk. 

The artificial silks, being essentially constituted of 
cellulose, have dyeing properties^similar to those of cotton, 
but the various kinds of artificial silk differ considerably in 
this respect. On account of the low tensile strength of 
many artificial silks when wetted, great care is required in 
dyeing these fibres. They are best dyed at a comparatively 
low temperature with basic dyes (without mordant) or with 
direct dyes. 

CoLOUE Matching. 

In dyeing any material to match a given shade great 

care is required to ensure that the two will match under all 

conditions. If the " matching off" is done by gaslight the 

two may be quite dissimilar when viewed by daylight. This 

1 See pp. 66—69. 



90 TEXTILES 

well-kuowu fact is due to the different optical properties of 
the various dyes. Two bkie dyes, for example, may appear 
identical in hue, but when each is mixed with the same 
amount of the same yellow dye the resulting greens may 
differ considerably. If examined spectroscopically the two 
blue dyes will be found to have different absorption spectra, 
and this is the fundamental cause of their different behaviour 
in mixtures or when viewed in different lights. The special 
optical properties of the various dyestuffs are thus of great 
importance in " matching off " or dyeing to shade. Equally 
important is the character of the light by which the colours 
are viewed, and the light reflected from a white cloud into 
a window with a north aspect is considered the most suit- 
able. The near presence of a red brick wall or any other 
coloured surface is quite sufficient to disturb an accurate 
match ; direct sunlight or a deep blue sky being also fatal 
in matching certain greys, drabs, etc. The use of a 
perfectly uniform light of the same character as a north 
daylight thus greatly simplifies the accurate matching of 
colours.^ The difficulties caused by the different absorption 
spectra of dyes can only be eliminated by a spectroscopical 
examination of each, or by using in bulk dyeing the same 
dyestuffs as were employed in dyeing the pattern which is 
being matched. 

Fastness Pkopbrties of Dyes. 

That some colours are " fast " and others are " fugitive " 
to light is a matter of as common knowledge as that some 
will withstand washing much better than others. These 

1 Such alight is to be found iu the "Dalite" lamp of Dufton & 
Gardner. 



THE DYEING OF TEXTILE MATEETALS 91 

differences are inherent to the nature of the dyes and are 
not (usually) due to defects in the methods of application. 
Thus the proper selection of dyes is of the greatest import- 
ance to the production of satisfactory results. It is obvious, 
for example, that material which is to be used for stuff 
curtains should be dyed with dyestuffs which have good 
fastness to light, fastness to washing being a secondary 
consideration; on the other hand, yarn which is to be used for 
making socks or underwear must be dyed with washing-fast 
colours, the effect of exposure to light being here less 
important. Again, in the case of woollen goods which are 
heavily fulled (milled), if yarn dyed the colours must be able 
to withstand that somewhat severe operation, and cotton 
warps which are made up with wool weft and then " piece 
dyed " must be dyed with colours which will not be affected 
by boiling dilute acid. Each case must thus be specially 
considered from this point of view as well as regards the 
question of producing the desired colour. 

Tables have been drawn up showing the fastness 
properties of the various dyestuffs in regard to light, milling, 
scouring, cross-dyeing, rubbing, washing, steaming, hot- 
pressing, etc., but it is impossible to usefully summarize 
such lists, and on this point manuals of dyeing must be 
consulted. 



CHAPTER V 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING 



It may vSeem somewhat out of order not to give priority to 
preparing and combing. But the end may justify the 
means. 

Just as weaving naturally developed before spinning, so 
did spinning naturally develop before the many interesting 
and ingenious processes which to-day precede the spinning 
operation, rendering this operation much easier of accom- 
plishment and vastly more perfect in its results than was 
the case in the olden days. In dealing with spinning prior 
to dealing with the preparatory processes, then, we are but 
following the historic evolution of the processes ; and in so 
doing we have the great gain of knowing exactly what is 
required — what are the necessary conditions for a " good 
spin " — and can therefore more perfectly realize the raison 
d'etre of the various processes to be subsequently dealt with 
and described. It might be contended that, following out 
this principle, weaving should be first dealt with. There is, 
however, a natural limit beyond which we may not pass 
without loss rather than gain. 

Spinning may be defined as the art of throwing a number 
of more or less short fibres together in such a way that, being 
drawn out to form a comparatively fine filament, they grip 
one another by reason of the surface friction and the twist 
inserted, thus forming a comparatively firm, strong thread. 



94 TEXTILES 

Thus spinning primarily consists of the two operations of 
drawing-out or " drafting," and twisting. It should at once 
be noted that " spinning " is quite distinct from silk " throw- 
ing," which simply consists of reeling the continuous thread 
or filament of from 400 to 1,600 yards forming the silkworm's 
cocoon, and throwing or twisting it with one or more threads or 
filaments of similar character to form a firm, stronger thread. 
Long Fibre Spinning. — Very brief study of the art of 
spinning will demonstrate the comparative ease with which 
long fibres, such as flax, hemp, long wool, etc., may be spun 
into yarn. Given length and all else is simple. The early 
recognition of this fact would naturally lead to the prepara- 
tion of flax, hemp, wool, etc., bundles or slivers so arranged 
that a continuous band of more or less parallel fibres might 
be passed into the spinning machine to be given the necessary 
twist and so be converted into thread. Thus the simplest 
and consequently earliest form of spinning would consist of 
some arrangement whereby, after having deftly formed a 
small band or sliver of fibres by the hand, twist might be 
expeditiously inserted. Such was " distaff spinning," the 
process being that just described, with very few conveniences 
for facilitating speed of production. How long the art of 
spinning rested in this very inefficient state we do not know, 
but probably for hundreds of years. Amid the ingenuity 
with which we of the twentieth century are surrounded 
from the cradle we cannot well gauge the mental effort 
necessary to evolve the idea of a continuous spinning process 
in place of the slow intermittent process. But it came at 
last, and the flax wheel, giving about three times the pro- 
duction, was evolved. In this the deftly extended sliver of 
right thickness and regularity was fed continuously by hand 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING 



95 



into a flyer revolved by means of a foot treadle, which, in 
conjunction with the bobbin upon which the yarn was to be 




ElG. 9.— Double-grooved Wheel A ; Pedal B ; Flyer C ; 
Bobbin I). 

wound, both twisted it and wound it neatly upon this bobbin. 
No doubt the difficulty in evolving this arrangement was 
due to the fact that it is impossible to effect the continuous 



96 



TEXTILES 



feeding in and twisting of a sliver without some means of 
winding on to the twisting spindle the thread so formed, or, on 
the other hand, of winding the yarn continuously on to a 

bobbin without some arrange- 
ment for the continuous twisting 
of the same. The bobbin and 
flyer — jDractically the funda- 
mental principle of all con- 
tinuous spinning frames — is 
really a most ingenious arrange- 
ment, and it would not be sur- 
prising to find that short fibre 
spinning on the ordinary simple- 
spindle hand wheel really pre- 
ceded this invention. The prin- 
ciple of long fibre spinning is 
infinitely simpler than the prin- 
ciple of short fibre spinning, but 
the necessary hand machine for 
continuous long fibre spinning is 
much more subtle and compli- 
cated than that required for 
short fibre spinning. 

The " flax wheel " (Figs. 9 and 
9a) consists of a double-grooved 
wheel (A), worked by a foot- 
pedal (B), round which two bands pass, one to the grooved 
flange on the spindle and flyer (C), and the other to the 
grooved flange of the bobbin (D), so that as the w^heel is 
revolved by the foot-pedal it in turn revolves both flyer and 
bobbin. As the bobbin has a smaller grooved flange than 




Fig. 9a.— Diagram of Flyer 
and Bobbin arrangement 
on the ordinary Flax 
Wheel. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING 97 

the grooved flange or driving wheel of the spindle, it there- 
fore goes somewhat quicker than the spindle and flyer. 
The bundle of flax or wool is conveniently placed above the 
flyer and bobbin, and a convenient or required thickness of 
sliver is made up from it and passed through the eye (E) of 
the flyer, round the wing and over a notch or wire {F') 
which directs the thread on to the bobbin. Upon the 
wheel being revolved, twist is put into the sliver in pro- 
portion to the length of sliver delivered to a given number 
of revolutions of the flyer ; and the yarn is wound up 
in proportion as the bobbin gains upon the flyer. IJ 
no sliver were delivered and the ivheel revolved, twist only 
ivould he put into the sliver. If all the sliver required were 
delivered, the bobbin held fast, and the flyer rotated, yarn 
ivould simply be ivound upon the bobbin. The actual 
spinning operation comes in between these two extreynes. 

The idea of increased production by a continuous employ- 
ment of both hands and feet would naturally lead to 
further attempts at increasing production. It would at once 
be realized that two main developments were necessary, viz., 
a more speedy means of preparing the slivers to be spun and 
a greater number of spindles to be worked by hand. This 
latter idea probably germinated first, as we have fairly early 
records of a double-spindle flax wheel. Few people, how- 
ever, would be skilful enough to work this with the con- 
dition of feeding the spindles with unprepared slivers ; 
hence little advance was made. The development of 
drafting rollers by Lewis Paul eventually entirely removed 
this limitation. How crude the ideas of the eighteenth 
century were we can only realize by again reverting to the 
fact that it was supposed that, as with metals, one pair of 

T. n 



98 



TEXTILES 



Double Eollers. 



Sinele Eoller. 





Pmnts for Consideration. 

(1) Size. 

(2) Material (foundation 

and covering). 

(3) Fluting. 



Points for Consideration. 

(1) Sizes and Relative Sizes. 

(2) Material (foundations and 

coverings). 

(3) Fluting. 

(4) Method of Weighting. 

(5) Method of Driving. 



Drafting EoUers. 





1) 



Points for Consideration. 

Eelative Sizes of Back and Front Eollers. 

Materials (foundations and coverings). 

Flutings. 

Method of Weighting and Influence on Power Consumed. 

Distance apart. 

Method of Driving. 

Eelative Speeds of the two pairs of Eollers. 

Inclination of Eollers. 

Supports (carriers) between the two pairs of Eollers. 

Fig. 10. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF SPINNING 99 

rollers would be sufficient to effect the necessary drafting. 
The development, however, was made, and its utility 
gradually realized to the full. We can well imagine the 
interest that Lewis Paul, Arkwright, and others would have 
in experimenting with rollers and noting the conditions 
under which they might best be employed for drafting, and 
it is something to their credit to be able to say that these 
early workers practically developed in their machines 
principles and methods which we have not been able to 
improve upon in principle to any great extent. 

A few words on roller-draft will demonstrate the prin- 
ciples employed. Some of the factors of roller-draft are 
illustrated in Fig. 10. These factors seem comparatively 
simple, but they are not really so. Take for example 
the first factor — size of rollers. At least three varying 
factors are here involved, viz., length of fibre to be drawn, 
size of roller to give the best conditions of wearing 
surface, and exact condition of gripping of the fibre 
desired. Thus in the spinning of short fibres such as 
cotton the diameter of the rollers should be approximately 
the length of the fibre (Fig. 11), while in long wool fibres 
(Fig. 12) there is little relationship of the diameters of the 
rollers to the length of the fibres, but on the other hand 
these diameters are decided with reference to grip on the 
fibre and surface wearing quality. For a 1^-inch staple 
cotton a l|-inch diameter pair of rollers is usually employed, 
while for an 8-inch wool yarn a 2|^-inch top back roller bearing 
upon a 1^-inch diameter bottom back roller and a 5-inch top 
front roller bearing upon a 4-inch diameter bottom roller are 
usually employed. Here again it will be noted there is an 
interesting question of " grip." With small rollers the gripping 

H 2 



I*- — >^ — li- ^-- If" » 




INDIAN. 




AliSRlCAN. 




EGyPTIAN &• AS'A ISZAND . 
Fig. 11. — Drafting Eollers for Various Lengths of Staples of Cotton 



THE PEINCIPLES OF SPINNING 



101 



surface will be small, and consequently there is a tendency to 
" cut." With larger rollers the gripping surface will be much 
larger, and consequently a firmer grip obtained with less fear 
of cutting. It will further be evident that it may be very 
desirable to leave some rollers bare and to clothe other rollers 





Cotton 



Fig. 12. — Illustrating the Eelative Sizes of Wool and 
Cotton Drafting EoUers. 

with leather, etc. Now, iron rollers may be clothed with leather 
in two ways, first by running a continuous leather apron 
between them, or by actually clothing one of the rollers with 
leather upon a felt or other foundation. Corresponding 
fluting necessitating rollers of equal size renders the leather 
apron idea more economical, and in fact necessary, in certain 



102 TEXTILES 

wool boxes, while in other boxes and frames a large 6-inch 
roller, leather clothed, fulfils the requirements of the case 
both from the efficiency and wearing surface or cost points 
of view. 

Again the questions of double metal nip, metal and leather 
or cloth nip, or double leather or cloth nip are worthy of the 
most careful consideration. One of the rollers in a wash-bowl 
is clothed with wool and wool grips wool against metal. But 
in the case of cotton, leather against metal is applied. Here 
is a most interesting problem. 

Then with reference to the distance apart of the two pairs 
of drafting rollers most interesting points are to be studied. 
Take, for instance, an 8-inch wool fibre. If this is passed 
through rollers 6 inches apart — the front rollers revolving 
faster than the back rollers — it will probably be broken. If 
the rollers are exactly 8 inches apart the back pair will give 
it up just as the front pair take control of it ; while if the 
rollers are, say, 10 inches apart each fibre must freely ride 
upon its neighbours for 2 inches after leaving the back rollers 
before the front rollers take it. The middle condition is the 
correct one, all cotton drawing rollers being very accurately 
set to control the fibre as positively as possible without break- 
ing it. But in a well-prepared wool combed sliver or " top " 
the fibres may vary from 4 inches to 10 inches or 12 inches, 
while there is also the question of twist in the sliver to be taken 
into account, twist enabling the drawer, as it were, to control 
the fibre with the fibre. If it were not for the twist factor and 
the natural cohesion of wool — save when affected with elec- 
tricity — wool " top " drawing would be a much more difficult 
process than it actually is ; in fact it would be necessary to 
work to the shortest fibre, breaking all the longer fibres, thus 



THE PETNOIPLES OF SPINNING 



103 



consuming power and destroying the quality of length so 
often required in worsted yarns. 

An economical question is involved in the speed at which 




Fig. 13. — Arkwright's Water- frame. 

drafting rollers should be run. Alone, i.e., without any 
spindle attachment to twist and wind-up the sliver drafted, 
the limit would depend in part on the nature of the fibre. 
Cotton, for example, can be drafted quickly when the fibres 
are once started sliding upon one another, hut not before ; and 



104 TEXTILES 

again, air blasts and air friction so affect cotton that they 
must be very carefully taken into account. There is also a 
mechanical problem of wear and tear involved, so that 
altogether this also is really a most interesting, if somewhat 
involved, question. 

It will now be realized that given drawing rollers, the 
flyer and bobbin mechanism, and a reasonably steady 
driving power, the factors for a successful automatic 
machine are present. Eichard Arkwright was the first 
to recognize this, and his water-frame was the first 
machine of any moment effecting the spinning of yarns 
automatically. 

The illustration of Arkwright's " water-frame " (Fig. 
13) will explain the general arrangement. The only new 
problem involved is the relationship of front rollers and 
spindle. The possible positions of spindle to front rollers 
are illustrated in Fig. 14, but it should be further remarked 
that the solution of this problem will in part depend upon 
the inclination of the drawing rollers. It should further 
be remarked that probably "gravity" cannot be entirely 
ignored. So far as relative position goes the relationships 
shown at A and E are identical, but it will be realized at 
once that the force of gravity may make a material 
difference in the " spin," especially if the sliver is heavy 
and has not marked adhesive qualities. The main point to 
note, however, is that of limitation of the twist. Anything 
touching the yarn between the top of spindle and the nip 
of the front rollers may limit the twist to below this point. 
Thus in some cases it may be desirable to have such a 
relative position of spindles and front rollers that the 
twist runs right up to the nip of the rollers ; in other 



THE tEINCiPLES OE SPINNING^ 



103 



cases it may be desirable to lay the sliver on the bottom 
front roller ; and in other cases it may actually be neces- 





■ -<^555; 



^^^-W- 




is 




Fig. 14. — Possible position of Spindle in relationsliip to Drafting Eollers. 

sary to introduce what is known as a trap-board with 
the threefold object of carrying the yarn straight from the 
nip of the rollers, of centring the yarn above the spindle — 
as in the cap frame — and of holding the twist in the yarn 



106 



TEXTILES 







Pi 




P4 
• r-t 



r2 
'B 



CO 



HIJ^^^-- -^ 



-Kl^^^ ^ 



.o--^^^^* 



W 




^^^^tl- 



PI 



I 



M 



THE PEINCIPLES OF SPINNING 107 

near to the spindle or cop. This latter point is worthy of 
very careful consideration, as the holding apart of two 
threads to be twisted together just above the twisting 
spindle has a marked effect on the regularity of the twist. 
The inclination of the spindle also, as will be noted directly, 
is most important in the woollen mule, and in general 
hardly receives the attention it merits. 

A glance may now be taken at the modifications of 
the continuous bobbin and flyer principle of spinning 
introduced since the time of Arkwright. 

When it was realized that the bobbin or spindle was the 
spinning mechanism and the flyer the winder-on, an 
endeavour was naturally, made to simplify this latter, 
thereby saving expense in construction, effecting a reduction 
in the consumption of power, easier doffing and quicker 
running. The labour difficulties in America further for- 
warded this movement and so the ring frame came into 
being. 

In the modern ring frame the spindle — but in this case 
without a flyer — is the chief motive factor. The drafted 
sliver is delivered exactly above the centre of the spindle, 
so that upon the spindle being revolved twist is put into the 
sliver. But how is winding-on effected ? Surrounding the 
spindle is the ring — or, conversely, the spindle passes exactly 
through the centre of the ring, and upon this ring, suitably 
controlled by the ring-flange, is a " traveller." The sliver, 
instead of passing directly to the apex of the spindle, first 
passes through the traveller and then on to the spindle or 
bobbin placed on the spindle. The traveller thus acts as a 
retarder, enabling the spindle to wind up the yarn delivered 
to it by the front rollers. The yarn is distributed on to the 



108 



TEXTILES 




Fig. 15. — Eing Spring Frame. — A, back rollers; B, carriers; 
G, front rollers ; D, eyelet board ; E, spindle ; F, spindle 
support ; G, spindle wbarl ; H, tin drum round which spindle 
band passes ; /, ring ; J, traveller. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING 109 

bobbin by the slow movement up and down of the ring-rail, 
the spindles naturally being fixtures. To ensure high speeds 
on this machine — say 7,000 to 12,000 revolutions — many 
spindles of special construction have been designed, some 
self-balancing, some running in oil, etc. (see Fig. 15). 

The development of the ring frame would naturally lead 
inventors still further afield, and eventually the cap frame 
was evolved. 

The cap frame is very similar to the ring frame, save that 
the edge of the cap itself develops, or helps to develop, the air 
friction whereby the bobbin may wind yarn on to itself. As 
the caps are too heavy to move, and as the distance between 
the trap-board D and the edge of the cap should be constant, 
the bobbin-rail moves to effect the distribution of the yarn 
on the bobbin (see Fig. 16). When the cap frame was first 
tried in Bradford the yarn was so softly wound that it could 
be jerked oft the bobbin. This was owing to the fact that the 
frame was run at 2,800 revolutions per minute " to give it 
a chance." It was only when the frame was speeded up to 
5,000 revolutions per minute that its great possibilities were 
realized. The cap frame came into the wool district from 
the cotton district. Why it should be so successful for 
pure Botany wool and so useless for cotton is again a most 
interesting question which we have not space to investigate 
here. 

In two important points the supposed automatic spinning 
frames are not automatic. They neither feed themselves 
automatically nor do they "doff" themselves automati- 
cally. The comparatively large bobbins placed in the 
creel behind the back rollers of a spinning frame contain so 
much sliver to be spun that little manual labour is necessary 



no 



TEXTILES 




/T\ 



Fig. 16. — Cap Spinning Frame. — J, back rollers; B, carriers; 
C, front I'ollers; D, eyelet board; E, spindle fixed in 
framework ; F, cap supported by spindle ; G, bearing for 
tube / ; II, wbarl round wbicb driving tape passes ; /, tube 
uj)on which, bobbin or spool is fixed and carried round. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING HI 

to keep the frame supplied with slivers or roving to be 
spun into yarn. Very different is it, however, with the 
doffing of the comparatively small spools or bobbins upon 
which the spun yarn is delivered. On an average a flyer 
frame running on ^^'s with 10 turns per inch, will be 
doffed six times per day of 10^ hours, and a cap frame 
running on ^^'s with 16 turns per inch seven times per 
day of 10^ hours. With the scarcity in half-time labour 
the invention of an automatic doffing motion has become 
imperatively necessary. Messrs. Clough & Co., of Keighley, 
first successfully employed such a motion on their flyer 
spinning frames, while Mr. W. H. Arnold-Forster, of Burley- 
in-Wharfedale, quickly foflowed with a top-driven flyer 
automatic doffing frame. Then came several attempts to 
" doff " the cap frame ; and finally it is fair to say that Messrs. 
Prince, Smith & Son and Messrs. Hall and Stell, both of 
Keighley, have each placed on the market successful flyer and 
cap doffing mechanism. At first it was thought that given 
half-time labour such a motion was not required from the 
economical point of view. From experiments recently made, 
however, it would appear that it is more than probable that 
the doffing motion wiU ultimately supplant half-time labour, 
being actually considerably more efficient with regard to out- 
put. This, however, refers more particularly to flyer frames — 
the conditions of doffing cap and ring frames being somewhat 
more comphcated. Considering the mechanical problem in 
a broad way it would seem as though the mechanical problems 
of doffing are greater than the problems involved in spinning, 
and that therefore the spinning machine should be made to 
the doffer and not, as at present, the doffer applied to a 
machine designed without regard to any such attachment. 
Of course, to change a machine which, although apparently 



112 TEXTILES 

simple, has been evolved by generations of workers and 
probably contains more than we have the least idea of, is a 
dangerous thing. Still, the result may justify the attempt. 

Short Fibre Spinning. — The art of short-fibre spinning 
would possibly develop some time after long-fibre spinning, 
being somewhat more involved and of such a nature that 
it would not so readily be " thought of," but would 
probably be accidentally " discovered." Briefly, the art of 
short-fibre spinning consists in supporting the thread or 
sliver during elongation with twist instead of with rollers. 
Did spinning simply consist of twisting fibres together, then 
it would be impossible to differentiate between long-fibre 
spinning and short-fibre spinning. Any difference would 
then probably lie in the preparation of the respective fibres 
for the spinning. But the drafting or drawing out of the 
sliver being necessarily implied, at once emphasizes the 
difference between long- and short-fibre spinning. For in 
long-fibre spinning the fibres are of such a length and are 
arranged so parallel in the sliver that when the spinning 
twist is inserted it is inserted into a sliver or thread already 
formed, and of which the thickness is already decided. 
Whereas in short-fibre spinning the commencement of the 
final twisting is really a putting in of drafting-twist, i.e., as 
the twist is inserted the sliver is elongated. But for this 
drafting-twist the short-fibred slivers to be spun would 
break. This drafting-twist running into the thinnest sections 
of the slivers strengthens them, and these becoming the strongest 
sections in turn serve as a means to draft the sections 
which are now relatively weaker. Upon the drafting being 
completed the elongated sliver is then converted into a true 
thread by receiving its final complement of twist. So potent 
is the drafting-twist that it must be exactly adjusted to the 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING 



113 



length of fibre being spun, the shorter the fibre and the 
more drafting-twist, and conversely, the longer the fibre the 
less drafting-twist, until for long fibres no twist at all is 
possible, as they bind the sliver too much, under which 
circumstance roller control must be resorted to. The 




Yio. 17.— General View of Woollen Mule. 

principle of spifidle-draft is the distinguishing feature of 
mule spinning, especially woollen mule spinning, producing 
yarns- of marked characteristics which in turn have a 
marked influence in both the weaving and finishing 
operations. Again, the method of inserting twist into 
the slivers on a mule must have some influence upon 
T. I 



114 



TEXTILES 



the resultant yarn, though what it exactly is we cannot yet 
say. 

The woollen mule was led up to by the jenny (Fig. 18), 
which was simply an enlarged single-bobbin wheel arranged 
to control from sixteen to sixty spindles. A similar machine, 
termed a billey, was introduced between the card and the 
jenny, to prepare the slivers for their final elongation. Both 
machines acted on the principle of " spindle-draft." 




Fig. 18. — -Hargreave's Spinning Jenny. 

The woollen mule is the perfect short-fibre spinner. In 
brief, a woollen mule consists of three main parts, viz., the 
prepared or condensed sliver holder and deliverer, the carriage 
with its spindles, and the headstock which controls the action 
of the other two. The condensed sliver (A, Fig. 19), brought 
up from the carding machine on lightly-flanged long condenser 
bobbins, rests on a delivery roller, and being turned by surface 
contact is always completely under control. The slivers from 
these condenser bobbins are passed through a pair of stationary 
rollers the revolution of which is in accord with the turning 




U) 



(5) 



Pig. 19. — {A) Condensed woollen sliver, prior to spinning ; 
{B) condensed worsted sliver prior to spinning. 

I 2 



116 TEXTILES 

of the condensed sliver roller, and both are under perfect 
control from the headstock, intermittent delivery being varied 
at will according to the requirements presently to be described. 
The carriage — carrying from 300 to 700 spindles of any suitable 
pitch, thickness and inclination, according to the work to 
be done — is perfectly controlled from the headstock by means 
of drawing-out and running-in scrolls. The speed of the 
spindles is also under perfect control so far as drafting-twist 
and final twist are concerned, and something more than under 
perfect control when the building up of the cop is in process, as 
will be explained immediately. One complete spin — starting 
with the carriage run-in to the delivery rollers, and consequently 
with the spindle points close to the grip of the rollers, from 
which the condensed sliver passes direct to the spindle points 
takes a few turns round the spindle and in the shape of spun 
yarn forms the cop on the spindle — may be described as 
follows : As the delivery rollers deliver condensed sliver the 
carriage with its spindles slowly retreats until it reaches about 
half the distance of its complete traverse, when the delivery 
rollers suddenly stop. The carriage, however, goes on towards 
its full traverse slower and slower, in the meantime the spindles 
putting in just the requisite drafting or supporting twist 
which, owing to the nearly upright position and thickness of 
the spindles, vibrates right along the slivers and ensures 
distribution in fair proportion to the diameter of the yarn, so 
that as thin places are strengthened and become strong the 
thick places are drafted out, and so an equalizing action goes 
on right throughout the drafting operation. Upon the 
carriage reaching the extent of its traverse — when drafting is 
completed — the spindles are turned on to double speed to 
efiect the necessary twisting of the approximately two yards 



THE PRINCIPLES OF SPINNING 



117 



of yarn per spindle, just twisting as quickly as possible. The 
insertion of so much twist naturally causes a contraction of 
the thread, and to allow for this a slight return of the carriage 
towards the delivery rollers is arranged for or a slight additional 
delivery of condensed sliver made, i, Upon the completion of 




Fig. 20. — Worsted Mule Section. — A, Ax, A^, French, drawn rovings 
ready for spinning; B, jack drafting rollers; C, carriers; I), 
front drafting rollers ; E, spindle carrying spun yarn ; F, wharl 
on spindle from which band passes to tin drum G ; II, drum which 
conveys motion through the cord I, from the twist pulley J, in 
the headstock K, to tin drum G ; L, a, catch, scroll which 
receiving a variable motion from the quadrant NN, through 
the chain M, gives the spindles the correct rotation to wind up 
the yarn for building a firm coi> during the running in of the 
carriage at the same time that the f aller wire and counter-f aller 
wire F direct and tension the winding up of the yarn, this being 
further controlled by the action of the " copping plate," which 
controls the up and down movement of the faller wires. 

the twisting the spindles are reversed for a few turns — this 
is termed " backing-off " — to enable the faller guide wire to 
commence building up the cop from where it left off at the 
last run-in, and a counter-faller wire, suitably weighted, rises, 
as a perfectly even tension must be maintained on the yarn, 
otherwise it " snarls " and forms kinks. The carriage is 
now freed and commences its run-in under the control of 



118 TEXTILES 

scrolls whicli, working in conjunction with a quadrant which 
controls the turning of the spindles, and a " copping-plate " 
which controls the traversing of the faller-wire, result in 
a firm, sound cop being built up. Upon reaching the 
delivering rollers the faller-wire rises ; the counter-faller 
wire falls and the spindles are free to repeat the cycle of 
evolutions. Of course a greater or less amount of condensed 
sliver may be delivered, according to the draft required, 
more or less drafting-twist may be inserted in accordance 
with the binding qualities of the material being treated, 
the exact turns per inch required may be inserted at double 
speed, and by a change of "copping-plate" the yarn may 
be wound on bobbins instead of on paper tubes. 

From this description the two main features of mule- 
spinning, viz., the spindle-draft and the twisting of unsupported 
threads will be fully realized. It should be noted, however, 
that as previously remarked the machine just described should 
not be called a mule, for Crompton's " mule " received its 
name from being a hybrid combination of roller and spindle- 
drafting, while in the Woollen mule there never has been any 
roller- draft ; it is simply an automatic jenny in the " billy " 
form.^ The cotton and worsted mules, however, are genuine 
mules, as roller-draft in these plays almost a leading part. 
If, as very often happens, little or no spindle-draft is 
inserted by these mules the only possible advantage would 
appear to be in the method of inserting the twist. 
Against this presumable advantage there is the intermittent 
character of the cycle of spinning operations and the 
additional floor space occupied to be placed. That there 
must be an advantage is evident from the fact that mule 
spinning in the cotton trade at least holds its own, while in 



THE PEINOIPLES OF SPINNING 119 

the case of the worsted it is rapidly making headway. In 
both these cases it may be that it is the peculiar method of 
sliver preparation, which it makes possible, which is the real 
advantage. This will claim attention in the next chapter. 

It will have been noticed that although cotton is short 
fibred, nevertheless it is frequently spun on the roller-draft 
or long-fibre spinning method. This is accounted for by the 
nature of the cotton fibre, which is much more docile than 
wool and does not require length to control it, but may 
readily be controlled by small drafting-rollers. In this 
connection it is interesting to note that prior to the 
mechanical era cotton yarns were probably spun very 
largely, if not entirely, upon the short-fibre spinning 
system. This is borne out by a knowledge of the cotton 
industry in India, in which the flax wheel plays no part, all 
the spinning being done on the simple-spindle wheel. This 
rendered cotton spinning a relatively difficult process as 
compared with either linen or long wool spinning ; hence 
the comparatively small number of people engaged in the 
industry prior to the mechanical era. But the introduction 
of the various automatic drawing and spinning machines 
rendered possible the drawing and spinning of cotton on 
the long-fibre principle ; in fact it is practically true to say 
that the cotton industry is a machine-created industry. It 
would probably always have remained small but for the 
introduction of mechanical methods. It would also be 
interesting to investigate to what extent the short or Botany 

^ It is an interesting problem in economy of power to decide 
whether the spun yarn should be run backwards or forwards and the 
condensed sliver left stationary or vice versa. Both forms are still ir^ 
■Vise to-day. 



120 TEXTILES 

wool industry is a machine-created industry. It is true 
that woollen yarns were spun from short wools prior to the 
mechanical era, but the short wool worsted yarn is evidently 
a creation of the mechanical era ; and consequently to this 
mechanical development must the large demand for Botany 
wools be attributed. That this is so is proved by the fact 
that the largest increases in the production of these yarns 
have taken place since the perfecting of the necessary 
preparatory machinery and the machine wool comb specially 
adapted for short wool combing, i.e., between 1840 and 1880 ; 
although short Botany wools were previously largely 
employed in the clothing and woollen trade. 

During the past twenty-five or thirty years many 
endeavours have been made to produce a frame yielding 
yarn possessing the same characteristics as yarn spun upon 
the mule. If such a frame could be produced a great 
saving in space and a markedly increased output would be 
effected, since such a frame would be a continuous spinnerj 
whereas the mule is an intermittent spinner. The difficul- 
ties to be faced are principally these : — Firstly, the continuous 
drafting of the sliver along \Yith the insertion of the 
necessary drafting-twist ; secondly, the insertion of the 
true thread twist ; thirdly, the construction of a frame as 
easy to follow — to piecen up broken ends on — as the mule ; 
and fourthly, a frame as inexpensive in both initial cost 
and in " following " as the mule. One of the first attempts 
was that made by Celestin Martin, of Verviers, in which a 
" twizzler " to insert false drafting-twist is placed between 
two pairs of drafting rollers, and a ring-frame arrangement 
placed to receive, twist and form a cop of the drafted but 
twistless yarn as delivered by the second pair of rollers. 



THE PEINOIPLES OF SPINNING 121 

This machine, although employed to a considerable extent 
on the Continent, cannot be considered entirely satisfactory. 
The drafting being effected or supported by false twist is 
very different in character from that obtaining on the mule. 
Again, the vibration which runs along the thread in mule 
spinning owing to the thickness and inclination of the 
spindles is not attempted here. Again, the final twisting 
conditions obtaining on the mule do not in the least 
obtain here ; and finally, the difficulties of piecening up 
are greater. 

In Fig. 21 the latest style of mule-frame is shown. In 
this it will be noted that the '' twizzle " (B) is placed practically 
upright and has two projections upon it. These are to give 
the " vibration " or short pulls to tJie thread which no doubt 
play such an important part in spindle-drafting on the mule. 
This form of twizzle, however, obviously increases the diffi- 
culties of piecening up. Arrangements are also made in this 
machine to make the drafting intermittent, but the twisting 
and winding on to the bobbin are continuous. As the main 
point in production lies in the twisting, this appears to be a 
move in the right direction. The conditions of final twisting, 
however, are similar to those employed in the Celestin Martin 
frame, and will probably result in a different yarn being pro- 
duced as compared with the genuine mule-spun yarn. Con- 
sidering the economic effect in the space occupied and the 
possibly greater production owing to the continuous action 
of the frame, this frame may be wisely and economically 
employed for the spinning of the harder twisted woollen 
yarns, although its initial cost per spindle will probably be 
much greater than the mule. 

In another frame of a similar style bars are inserted between 



122 



TEXTILES 




THE PEINCIPLES OF SPINNING 123 

the back and front rollers, near to the back rollers, with the 
idea of limiting the " run-up " of the twist in the thread, so 
that drafting may be more readily effected. This, however, 
shows a total want of perception as to the fundamental 
principles of spindle-draft. 

Again the difficulty was supposed to be solved by the 
addition of an apparatus to the condenser, which took the 
slivers directly from the ring doffer — thus obtaining a " free- 
end " — and twisted them into what were called threads. 
As there was no draft at all in this case the resultant strands 
were simply twisted slivers and not spun threads. 

In still another type the front drafting rollers were lifted 
to allow the twist to run up to the back rollers. 

From these attempts it would appear that for the spinning 

of characteristic woollen yarns — especially fine yarns with 

much twist — the woollen mule is not at all likely to be 

superseded. 

***** 

All the foregoing particulars should lead up to a thorough 
apprehension of the conditions governing yarn and thread 
construction. Actual thread structures must now be con- 
sidered. These may well be studied under two headings, 
viz., single yarns and two- or many-fold yarns. Perhaps a 
third class should be added of fancy yarns, which, however, 
can only be referred to very briefly in a treatise of this nature. 

Single yarns are apparently so simple in fibre arrangement 
that it would seem that there is Kttle to be noted about them. 
The difference in fibre arrangement between woollen and 
worsted yarns must certainly be noted, and even in worsted 
yarns the question of fibre length and binding must be care- 
fully considered. 

Undoubtedly the next most important matter is the 
twist. This is usually defined in " turns per inch," but 



124 TEXTILES 

the designation by " angle of twist " is so much more 
useful and satisfying that it is here adopted as the basis 
of treatment. With reference to both single and two-fold 
yarns the following formulse will be found to be of great 

practical utility : — 

If B = the diameter reciprocal, 

TT = ratio of circumference to diameter, 
6 = angle of twist, and 
T — turns per inch, then 

^ = T and — ^ - cot of 6. 



TT X cote IT X T 

In single yarns the " fibre angle " is dealt with ; this has 
an important bearing on the folding of yarns. In all 
two-fold yarns the relationships of " fibre angle " and " twist 
angle " must be carefully considered. Thus, as illustrated in 
Fig. 22, the three most ordinary relationships will be : — 

Converse twist (2). 

Straight-fibre twist (1). 

Concurrent twist (3). 
Of these, converse twist is often spoken of as " balance 
twist," since the torsional strains due to the single twist may 
be just balanced by the torsional strains due to the two- 
folding twist. 

In " straight-fibre twist " the two-folding in the reverse 
direction to the single twisting just brings the fibre direction 
into line with the longitudinal direction of the thread. 
The conditions for obtaining this relationship, which is 
certainly one of the best possible, is : 

—p- of two-folding,—-— for three-folding, 
A/ 2 V3 

c 

Tj for four-folding, etc., etc., 

where S = turns per inch in. the single yarn. 



THE PEINOIPLES OF SPINNING 



125 



Concurrent twist used to be much more extensively employed 
than at present, owing to the mistaken idea that to put mto 
the two-fold the same number of turns per inch put into the 



^in^k'Uii'^i^^. 




GoTwexAC (/wvit. 



Gx«vcuAiMii/ \3wCrC. 





Pig. 22. — Six Classes of Two-fold Yarns. 

single, but in the reverse direction, would just take out the 
single twist and make the softest possible yarn. 

The three other possible conditions for two-fold yarns are 
shown in Fig. 22 (4, 5 and 6). Each of these yarns has special 



126 TEXTILES 

properties, which should be fully realized by the yarn and 
cloth constructor. For voile fabrics, for example, (6) is most 
useful. 

Fancy yams may be classed as knickers, cloud, knop and 
loop, there being several varieties of each. From time to 
time fashion favours the fabrics into which these yarns may 
be woven, but generally these yarns have only a limited 
application. 



CHAPTER VI 

PKOCESSES PREPARATOEY TO SPINNING 

In the foregoing chapter the various principles of spin- 
ning have been fully considered on the supposition that both 
long and short fibres of various classes were available for 
spinning. No account, however, was taken of the fact that 
in no case, with the partial exception of silk, are either the 
long or short fibres of commerce found naturally in a con- 
dition suitable for being spun into yarn. For example, the 
variation in length in most materials necessitates a comb- 
ing operation to classify the fibres which may be satis- 
factorily spun together, long spinning well with long, and 
short with short, but not long with short. Again, all materials 
contain either impurities natural to their growth or 
accidental impurities which get into the mass of fibres and 
must be removed before spinning can be attempted. In 
the first class the cortical substance in flax, the gums in 
China-grass, the yolk in wool, the gum in silk and the 
seeds in cotton, may be cited. In the second class water, 
beyond a certain amount, in flax, wool, and cotton ; and 
burrs, seeds, straw, and sand in wool may be cited. What- 
ever the impurity be, it is usually necessary to remove it 
with the least possible damage to the fibre and to leave 
the fibre in a condition for being spun into a good useful 
yarn as already defined. 

The processes preparatory to spinning are very varied, 
naturally being adapted to each particular fibre. The prin- 
ciples involved, however, are all comprised in the following 



128 



TEXTILES 



maclimes,^ the action of which will be described after 
the natural requirements of the various fibres have been 
considered. 



Materials for which Employed. 
. For cotton. 



Machine. 
The Gin .... 
The Washing or Scouring 

Machine 
The Dryer 
The Scutcher . 
The Backwasher 
The Gill-box . 

The Carder 

The Dresser 
The Comb 

The Drawing-box 
The Cone Drawing-box 
The French Gill or Drawing- 
box .... Short wools. 

The important points to study about these machines 
are, firstly, the principle underlying their construction ; 
secondly, the way the material should be prepared for 
presentation to these machines ; and, thirdly, the way in 
which these machines should deliver the material ready for 
the ensuing process or processes. Before dealing with 
these points, however, the natural requirements of each 
fibre should be considered, as it must always be the fibre 
which decides the type of preparing machine — even iron 

^ Net Silk Machining is treated separately in Chapter XV. 



Wools and hairs. 

Wools, hairs, etc. 

(a) For cotton, (b) For flax. 

Worsted slivers and tops. 

Long wools and silk (modified 

form). 
Medium and short wools and 

cotton. 
Waste silk and China-grass. 
Wool, cotton, and sometimes 

silk and China-grass. 
Wool, cotton, and silk. 
Wool and cotton. 



PROCESSES PEEPARATOEY TO SPINNING 129 

and steel must conform to soft cotton and wool, lustrous 
silk and harsh China-grass. Thus in the preparation of 
cotton and wool for spinning on the short-fibre principle 
good carding is so important that the resultant spin may 
absolutely be said to depend upon it. In the preparation 
of flax and certain other vegetable fibres for spinning on 
the long-fibre principle satisfactory retting, scutching and 
dressing are equally important. In the preparation of long 
animal fibres such as English wool, mohair, and alpaca, as 
also in the case of the " combed " cottons, an averaging of 
the fibres by means of the operation of combing — which in 
turn has its preparatory processes in the form of carding or 
preparing — is necessary to ensure a satisfactory spin. It is 
obviously impossible to say that any one process is the most 
important in the sequence ; each operation must be worked to 
the best advantage if good results are to be finally attained. 

Four Methods of Preparing Vegetable Fibres for Spinning. — 
To ensure satisfactory results in the spinning it has been 
found necessary to employ at least four distinct methods of 
preparation for the various types of vegetable fibres, each 
of these methods having been naturally evolved through 
experience with the respective fibres to which each is best 
suited. These four methods are as follows : — 

1. Air-hlast PrejMi-ation} — This is chiefly employed for 
cottons, being the main principle of the openers, scutchers, 
and perhaps not altogether inactive in the carders. The 
initial stages of the preparation are usually followed by 
carding, sometimes combing (as explained in the chapter 
on the Cotton Industry), and then drawing as directly 
preparatory to spinning. 

* See p. 140 for description of ginning machine, the first machine 
employed in cotton. 

T. K 



130 TEXTILES 

2. Betting Preparation. — This is chiefly employed for 
flax and a few analogous fibres, in which the fermenta- 
tion due to steeping in peaty water, or perhaps "dew 
retting," is sufficient to destroy the cortical substance 
in the flax stems and thus render fairly free the fibrous 
portion. Scutching to further loosen any cortical particles 
still adhering, and dressing, complete the cleaning 
preparation of the fibres, which are then got into sliver 
form, as in the case of long wools, etc., and finally 
drawn and spun on the long-fibre principle as already 
explained. 

3. Scrajjing Preparation. — This method is employed for 
such fibres as Ramie and China-grass, in which no form of 
retting is altogether satisfactory, probably owing to the 
gums which act as firm binding or integrating agents. 
Not only is a good scraping in running water usually 
necessary, but " degumming " by means of caustic soda or 
other reagents is also necessary later. Once the " filasse " 
is in a really fibrous and clean state it may be treated 
somewhat on the flax principle, or, better still, on what is 
known as the " spun silk principle," in which an averaging 
up of the "fibres is eftected by a process known as " dress- 
ing" (see p. 138) followed by sliver forming- arrangements 
similar to those employed for long wool, and spinning on 
the long fibre principle. 

The French comb is sometimes employed in place of the 
dressing frame, and has proved very eft'ective. 

4. Artificial Preparation. — As artificial silk spinning is here 
in question and as most artificial silks are formed from vege- 
table matter, such processes should claim consideration here. 
The spinning referred to is not really spinning, it is rather a 
drawing-out of a prepared wood or cotton pulp into a fine 



PEOCESSES PREPAR\TORY TO SPINNING 131 

filament which, hardening on exposure to the air or by special 
treatment, thus becomes a fine strand and is later twisted or 
" thrown " with other strands to form in turn a true thread. 
As the later principles involved are those of silk throwing no 
further description is here called for. It is interesting to note^ 
however, that artificial flax and wool are now being placed on 
the market, and no doubt other varieties of such fibres or 
filaments will follow. 

Four Methods of Preparing Animal Fibres for Spinning.^ 
As animal fibres are usually delivered into the hands of the 
spinner already in a fibrous state, their preparation is different 
from that of flax, etc. — on the one hand by reason of the 
absence of the necessity for mechanical treatment, and on the 
other hand in that certain adhering impurities must be removed 
by certain chemical or chemico-physical operations, the 
washing or scouring of the wool, etc., being the chief of these. 
The two methods of cleansing wool, either of which may be 
employed, are the solvent or soap-scouring method, which is 
almost universally employed, and the solvent method, in 
which treatment with a solvent such as benzene or petrol is 
followed by a warm- water wash. This latter method is now 
claiming careful consideration, and may prove to be the best 
system under certain conditions — in carbonizing, for example, 
in which burrs, etc., are charred from the wool by a sulphuric 
acid treatment. The operation of scouring, however — take 
what care one will — frequently so mats the wool or hair that 
special machines must be employed to disentangle it and 
constitute it into a sliver suitable for spinning from on the 
short-fibre principle or a sliver suitable for spinning from on 
the long-fibre principle. 

The four methods of preparation employed for wool and 
hairs are as follows : — ■ 

k2 



132 



TEXTILES 



1. The Woollen Method.— In this case willowing, teasing, 
scribbling, and carding result in the wool being delivered 
as a broad continuous film — with fibres perfectly dis- 




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tributed — to the condenser which breaks the broad film of, 
say, 48 to 72 inches up into 60 to 140 pith-like fila- 
ments — not threads, as there is no twist in them — which 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 133 

are continuously wound on to the condenser bobbins, which 
in turn are transferred to the mule to be spun into threads 
by additional draft and twist. (See Fig. 23.) 

2. The Boiany Worsted Metliocl. — Fine, fairly short 
wools which later may be spun on the long-fibre principle 
are carded to obtain an even distribution of the fibres in 
the sliver delivered from the card. But the carding opera- 
tion no doubt tends in part to arrange the fibres longi- 
tudinally in the sliver, being aided in this by the way in 
which the sliver is drawn off the machine as compared 
with the delivery of the sliver from a woollen card. The 
combing operation now follows, being undertaken with ihe 
idea of taking away the short fibres, termed " noil," and thus 
leaving in the slivers to be spun only the fibres of a good 
average length. Gill-boxes and drawing-boxes then effect 
the " straightening " necessary before spinning can be 
satisfactorily undertaken, the two principles of " doublings" 
and " draft " being applied with the idea of obtaining a level 
sliver which will spin out to the required count. The 
excess of draft over doublings gives the reduction in thick- 
ness of sliver. The knowing when to double and when 
to draft to obtain level slivers is still only imperfectly 
understood. (See Figs. 24 and 24a.) 

3. The English Worsted Method. — Long wools and hairs 
such as mohair, alpaca, etc., are treated on this system, 
although it is well to note that there is a marked tendency 
to prepare by carding much longer wools than was formerly 
the case. These long-fibred materials are gilled as a pre- 
paration for combing and combed on the Lister or Noble 
comb. Gill-boxes and drawing-boxes then effect the neces- 
sary " straightening " prior to spinning, doubling and 




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PEOCESSES PHEPAEATOEY TO SPlNNmO 



135 



drafting being applied very much as in the case of Botany 
wools, but as a rule there are fewer operations. 

4. The French Worsted Method. — The shortest and finest 
Botany wools are prepared for spinning on this method, 
he principle being that the wool is treated in an open 
condition without twist by drafting rollers throughout, 
twist being unnecessary. Of course special support and 



m 

Single used Single used foi' 
for Tram. orgranziue. 





Orgauzine 
(2-singlej . 



Tram 

(2-single). 



Fig. 25. — Graphic Illustration of Net Silk Yarns. 

control of the wool during drafting and a special form of 
delivery are necessary. The worsted mule almost invariably 
forms the climax to this method, although there is a ques- 
tion as to whether spinning on the cap principle may not 
yield economical and useful results. 

Two Methods of Silk Preparation. — The special charac- 
teristics of silk are its gumminess audits "slipperiness." 
These two factors play an important part in deciding the 
processes through which the fibre shall pass. The two 



136 



TEXTILES 



distinctive methods of preparation are designed for the " net '* 
silks and the " waste " silks respectively, the " net " silks 
requiring a " continuous fibre process " and the waste silks 
simply a " long-fibre process." 

1. The Continuous Fibre Silk Process. — In this case the 




Fig. 26. — Spun Silk Drafts (the horizontal divisions = 1 inch). A, JJ, 
C, I), E, and F are 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th drafts ; G, the 
shorts, and H the noil. 

fibre is simply reeled from the cocoon its fall length, 
cleaned, softened, and " thrown " with other fibres, twist 
being inserted according to requirements, quantity and 
direction being important matters to attend to (see Fig. 25). 
In this case the preparation for the spinning or " throw- 
ing " is very similar to the actual throwing operation. 
Degumming is effected with soap and hot water, and may 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATORY TO SPINNING 137 

be carried out either after spinning or advantageously 
after weaving, as the silk gum strengthens the thread and 
results in better work right away through the processes. The 




Fig. 26a.. — Stages in China Grass Spinning. J, stem of Bcelimeria 
Tenacissima ; B, decorticated fibrous mass ; C, degummed and 
bleaclied filasse ; 1), dressed filasse ; E, shorts ; F, noil ; G, sliver 
from spreader ; // and /, slivers from intermediate boxes ; J, the 
roving ; and K the spun thread. 

necessity for dyeing and the difficulty of degumming cer- 
tain fabrics result in large quantities of silk being woven 
in the degummed form. 



18,^ TEXTILES 

2. The Long-Fihre Silk Process. — In this case the fibres, 
although long — say 8 inches to 12 inches — are not continuous. 
They may be prepared and got into fairly satisfactory sliver 
form by rollers and gills (which are usually of the intersect- 
ing type to control them better), but to spin them satisfactorily 
the fibres must be averaged up on the dressing-frame — i.e., 
separated, say, into seven lots or " drafts," as they are 
termed, according to the length of fibre, the first draft 
being, say, 12 inches, the second 10 inches, and so on (see 
Fig. 26). The slippery nature of the silk fibre necessitates 
its treatment on the "dressing-frame"; in fact, this fibre 
has given rise to the dressing-frame, which now is not only 
employed for silk, but also very largely for China-grass 
(see Fig. 26a). 

The still shorter or real waste silk may be again carded 
up and prepared and spun upon the Botany worsted 
method. 

Typical Example of the Method or Preparing and 
Spinning a Textile Material (China- grass or Eamie). 

Ramie Manufacture : Order of Processes. 
la. Decorticating usually on plantation while stems are 
green. 

1. Boiling with caustic soda, etc. 

2. Bleaching — ordinary method. 

3. Washing. 

4. Hydro-extracting. 

5. Heat drying — without confusion of " fibre-bundles." 

6. Roller-softening. Through rollers — 6 inches for- 

ward, 3 inches backward, etc. 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 139 

7. Carding and fibre cutting process. 18 combs. Cuts 

at 7f inches. 

8. Dressing between 32 books on flat dressing-frame with 

stripping drums. 

9. Spreading or gilling (intersecting gills). Lap-drum 

3 feet in diameter. Ratch = ll inches to 12 inches. 
Fallers occupy space of 8 inches. Two passages. 

10. Gilling (ordinary). Batch 11 inches to 12 inches. 

Fallers occupy space of 8 inches. 

11. Drawing on open-gill — 4 heads. Eatch 11 inches to 

12 inches. Fallers occupy space of 8 inches. 

12. Eoving on 40 spindle frame. 1 sliver up. Eatch 

10 inches to 11 inches. Fallers occupy space of 
7i inches. 

13. Doubling on 60 spindle frame. 2 to 4 slivers up. 

Carriers in place of gills. 

14. Hot water spinning on 300 spindle ring frame. 

Batch of 10 inches. 

15. Dry twisting on 272 spindle ring frame. 

16. Gassing on gassing frame. 

17. Beeling. 

18. Bundling. 

* * * V * 



EEEPABATOEY MACHINES 
Each of the machines previously mentioned must now 
be briefly described, when the reader will no doubt be able 
to adjust the requirements of any particular fibre to the 
mechanical principles of any required machine, or vice 
versa. 



140 TEXTn.ES 

The Cotton Gin. — This machine in its simplest form con- 
sists of a roller with a broad steel blade sprung against it. 
The roller draws the cotton round between itself and the 
blade, and the seeds, being large and hard, instead of fol- 
lowing are freed from the cotton fibre and drop off into a 
receptacle arranged for them (Figs. 27 and 27a). 




Fig. 27.— Cotton Gin. 

The Washing or Scouring Machine. — This primarily con- 
sists of a bow'l for holding the heated scouring liquor in 
which the wool is to be cleansed by immersion. This 
appears very simple, but a few moments' thought will 
show that some comj)lexity is inevitable. The liquor must 
be maintained at a definite heat, hence steam must be laid on ; 
it will also be advisable to lay on water, and possibly soap 



PEOCESSES PREPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 



141 



liquor and alkali, so that perfect control of the temperature, 
heat, and strength of the liquor is obtained. 

The yolk, sand, dirt, etc., got out of the wool must be 
disposed of. Thus, satisfactory means of emptying the bowls 
must be adopted, drain pipes being suitably connected to the 
bowl or bowls to deliver the liquor to the settling or waste 
product tanks. 




Fig. 27a.— Section of Single Macaithy Cotton Gin. 

But, again, during the operation of scouring the dirb and 
grease, etc., should be got away from the wool entering the 
bowl, this being usually effected by the settling which takes 
place by floating the liquor out with the wool and arranging 
for a tank at the side for the grease, sand, dirt, etc., to settle 
into, but so constructed that it may be readily cleaned out. 
In the latest form of wash-bowl (Fig. 28) the machines are 
self-cleansing, and may be used continuously for weeks. 

The propelling of the wool from one end of the tank to 



142 



TEXTILES 










Ph 



PEOCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 143 

the other and especially taking it out of the machine 
are also matters which require very careful thought and 
arrangement. 

Scouring sets now frequently consist of four or five 
machines giving about 60 to 80 feet of bowl, in which the 
wool is immersed on an average for about eight minutes. 

It may be interesting here to give a brief resume of the 
evolution through which wool scouring has passed. 

The first idea was to pass the wool rapidly through the 
scouring liquor ; this matted the wool, prevented perfect 
scouring, and resulted in bad work throughout all subsequent 
processes. 

Then the idea of forcing the scouring liquor through the 
wool was tried, with a very similar result. 

Then it was realized that the natural tendency of wool 
to open out when placed in water — when the surface 
tension was removed — must be made the basis of wool 
scouring, and the wool was floated along with the scouring 
liquor. 

Then the idea of a wet nip or " possers " was tried and found 
wanting, a wet nip apparently nipping dirt into the wool. 

Finally the modern wash-bowl was evolved in which, during 
the first part of the passage of the wool through the bowl, the 
liquor is tending to pass through the wool, and during the 
latter part of the passage the wool is being gently pressed 
forward through the liquor. The wool is floated out with the 
liquor and given a " nip " or " squeeze " between a wool- 
covered roller and a brass roller, which takes out up to 40 per 
cent, of the liquor and delivers the wool free and unmatted. 

Finally it was realized that a combination of circum- 
stances and conditions was necessary, that attention must 
be paid to all points, and the bearing of one point upon 



144 



TEXTILES 




o 



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M 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 



145 



another fully taken account of. Thus were evolved the 
sets of modern wool-scouring machines in which the neces- 
sary agitation may be obtained, but which deliver the wool 
free, clean and wonderfully dry. 

Modifications of wool-scouring machines to effect " wool 
steeping," and thereby reclaim the valuable potash salts, 
are also placed upon the market. 

The solvent system of scouring is so little used that a detailed 
consideration of it is not here called for. 

The Dryer. — There are several forms of drying machine, 




Fig. 29A. — Section of Single Cotton Scatclier. 
such being necessary in the case of English and cross-bred 
wools after scouring and also useful in such operations 
as carbonizing. The drying machine has followed an 
evolution similar to the scouring machine. The material 
to be dried has been held and air forced through it — as in 
the case of the table dryer ; the material to be dried has 
been carried into the drying air, and last, and perhaps best 
of all, the mean between the two has been adopted as in the 
latest form of McNaught dryer. 

The Cotton Scutcher. — This is a machine to thoroughly 

disintegrate and clean the cotton prior to carding. Briefly 

it consists of " cage " rollers upon which the cotton is 

blown, which pass it forward until eventually it is delivered 

T. L 



146 



TEXTILES 



as a lap. Suitably arranged "grids" allow sand and 
heavy foreign matters to drop out of the air currents; 




EiG. 29b.— The Eiax Scutclier. 
thus the cotton is fairly well cleaned and freed prior to 
carding (Figs. 29 and 29a). 



PROCESSES PEEPARATORY TO SPI.VNINO 147 




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148 TEXTILES 

The Flax Scutcher. — This is a machine to beat and break 
the flax straw after retting so that it is in a suitable state 
for the dressing frame. It is practically a " breaker " of 
the flax straw and also a partial cleanser (Fig. 29b). 

The Backwasher. — This machine usually consists of two 
small washing or scouring tanks, drying cylinders, and 
a straightening gill-box. It is made in several forms, for 
each type certain constructional advantages or advantages 
for the material treated being claimed. It is employed 
either before (in England) or after (in France) combing 
to thoroughly clean worsted slivers or " tops," for not only 
does the wool become sullied in passing through the several 
preparing machines, but impurities which cannot be 
extracted in the scouring bowls have revealed themselves 
and may here be conveniently got rid of. The process of 
" blueing " to give a white appearance to the slivers or tops 
is frequently resorted to, and is usually effected on the 
backwasher. The latest innovation in this machine is the 
adoption of hot air drying in place of cylinder drying 
(see Fig. 30). 

The Preparing Gill-box. — This consists of a pair of back 
rollers, gills or fallers riding on screws, and front rollers, 
with feed sheet and lap, balling-head or can delivery. 
The action on the wool may be either a combing action or 
principally a drawing action. For example, when wool is 
much matted the fallers, working quicker than the back 
rollers, comb out the fibres and deliver them to the front 
rollers, which should be set close to the fallers. But when 
the material has been much worked and is fairly straight, the 
faller-pLQS simply slip through the fibres and consequently 
can only act as supports between back and front rollers ; in 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATORY TO SPINNING 



149 



other words, the operation becomes largely a drawing opera- 
tion between back and front rollers. 




Fig. 31. — Plan and Elevation of Stieeter Gill-box. A, back 
rollers ; B, fallers set with, pins (gills) ; V, front rollers ; 
D, sheeting leathers forming lap ; k, train of wheels 
driving front rollers ; F, train of wheels driving back 
rollers; O, screws duving the fallers or gills. 

As pointed out with reference to cotton, the distance apart 
of drawing rollers, size of rollers, etc., must be very care- 
fully considered. With wool the ratch or distance between 
back rollers and fallers or back rollers and front rollers is 




Fig. 31a. — Four-Lead Frencli Gill-box in Plan and Elevation. 
A, creel; B, back drafting rollers; C, pinned fallers or 
gills ; D, front drafting rollers ; E, balling head. 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 



151 




equally important, but as the wool fibre is so much larger 
than the cotton fibre the size of the rollers need only be 
taken into account from a wear and tear and possibly 
from the grip and weighting points of view. 



152 TEXTn.ES 

The Preparing Gill-box may be befjt considered as an 
admirable straightener for wool and the various long animal 
fibres, and also as a mixer for fibres of varying qualities or 
colours (see Figs. 31 and 31a). 

The Carder. — This machine has been evolved from the 
hand-cards, such as are still used in the home industries 
of Scotland and Ireland. The first step towards an auto- 
matic card was made when a cylinder — which might be 
turned by hand — was clothed with card-clothing and the 
wool worked between this cylinder and a flat card held in 
the hand. This early foroi of card gave rise to the flat and 
the revolving flat cards still largely employed in the cotton 
trade. Finally the whole of the carding was effected by 
cards mounted upon cylinders, and after many trials, 
involving both successes and failures, the modern roller card 
was evolved. It is here interesting to note that, owing to the 
susceptibility of cotton to air blasts, the cotton roller card 
is invariably made narrow and enclosed more than is the 
wool card ; while, as a matter of fact, probably due to this, 
and also to the fibre length, the flat card seems the favourite 
for cotton (see Fig. 32). The revolving flat cotton card is now 
the standard type, it being almost a self-cleansing machine. 

In woridng carding machinery there are two main points 
to be attended to, viz., the satisfactory carding of the 
material and the designing and arrangements of the various 
parts to work to the greatest advantage with the least 
possible wear and tear. The satisfactory carding of the 
material depends in the first place upon the principle upon 
which the card works. This in the case of the roller card 
is as follows : — The swift acts as the main carrying cylinder 
constantly endeavouring to pass the wool forward, but is 



PROCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 153 




WorsLtd Card 



Fig. 33. — Illustrating the Sizes of Cylinders in Cards for 
CarJiu':^ Various Qualities of Wool. 



154 



TEXTILES 





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156 TEXTILES 

opposed by the teeth of the workers, which, acting as a sort 

of sieve, do not allow material to pass them until it is 

finely divided up. Thus from beginning to end of a card 

the workers should be set closer and closer — the first 

worker a fair way off, the last close to the wires of the 

swift, but never touching.^ Thus material is really worked 

by material. The material is condensed or " doubled " on the 

workers and then elongated or drafted by the strippers, and 

again drafted by the swift stripping from the strippers. This 

is the carding operation ; feed-rollers, licker-in, fancy 

and doffer being the means of conducting wool into and 

out of the machine. It will be noticed that the satisfactory 

accomplishment of the operation just described depends 

upon (a) the surface speeds of the rollers, which in part 

necessarily influence the size of these rollers ; (b) the 

direction in which the rollers revolve ; (c) the inclination 

or bend of the card teeth; and (d) upon the relative density 

of the card- teeth with which the various rollers are clothed. 

The wear and tear upon a card depend largely upon the 

size of the rollers, and of course upon the practical setting. 

The material of which the cards are built is of course 

another important matter, but ordinary engineering 

principles here apply. Iron is more stable than wood but 

is readily broken, while wood is more convenient but does 

not long remain " true." The following diagrams and lists 

will illustrate the principles of carding and of satisfactorily 

clothing the card cylinders (see Figs. 33, 34, and 35), 

In Pig. 39 a general view, and in Fig. 39a a sectional view, 
of the woollen condenser (tape) is given from which some idea 

^ This is not quite true, as in carding mungo, etc., the wires may be 
set to run into one another. 



PEOCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 



157 



may be obtained of how the broad fibres of wool passing 
through the carder is ultimately split up in over a hundred 
fine filaments. 



7S05 




Fig. 36.— Fillino: En^rino. 



The Dresser. — This machine takes the place of the comb 
when the material is (a) too rough as in the case of flax to 
be satisfactorily combed ; or (b) too slippery, as in the case 
of silk and china-glass, to be satisfactorily combed. 



158 



TEXTILES 




PEOCESSES PREPAEATORY TO SPINNING 159 

The silk or ramie fibre is prepared for the dressing frame by 
being carded on a spiral carder (Fig. 36) and upon this carder 
cut up into about 12-inch lengths. These 12-inch lengths are 
then clasped in the " books " of the dressing frame (Fig. 37), 
which are placed in the holder or carriage and brought within 
the sphere of action of the combs. The " books " are then 
taken out and the silk reversed, i.e., it is held by its combed 
or dressed end and the undressed end is then combed or 
dressed. The short fibre taken away by the combs forms 
" noils," which may be treated on the woollen principle. 




Fig. 3S. — Position of Large and Two Small Circles in llie 
Noble Comb. 

There are several forms of the dressing frame. The material 
may be presented upwards to the combs as in the case of silk, 
or downwards as in the case of flax. In the case of silk- 
dressing the operation is undertaken more with the idea of 
averaging the fibres into the several different " drafts " ; in 
the case of flax the operation partakes more of a cleansing 
character (see Fig. 37). 

The Comb. — While combing may in part be said to be 
based upon the idea of averaging up the fibres, still more 
truly may it be said to consist in combing out all fibres 
under a certain length, leaving the long or top wool to form 



160 



TEXTILES 




Fig. 3Sa. — Self-supporting Noble Uomb, latest Form, 
what is termed the "top" and the short to form "noil." 
Along with combing, as with dressing, must go a straighten- 
ing operation; in fact, in the days of the hand comb, the 
second combing was termed " straightening." 



PEOCESSES PREPARATORY TO SPINNING 161 

There are two types of comb in use, the horizontal cir- 
cular and the vertical circular. The Noble comb is the best 




Fig. 39. —Leather Tape Condeuser. 

representation of the horizontal circular (Figs. 38 and 38a). 
The combing operation here is based upon the drawing out 
of the long fibres between the diverging circles until the 
one having the shortest end as it were leaves go, leaving the 

T. M 



162 



TEXTILES 



long fibres hanging on the outside of the small circle and the 
inside of the large circle, from which they are drawn ofi by 
suitably placed rollers. Small drawing-off rollers enable this 
comb to satisfactorily treat very short wools. The noil in 
the meantime has been held within the pins, and ultimately is 
taken of? from between the pins of the small circles by what 
are known as noil knives. The pinning of Noble comb circles 




fl-r^^ 



EiG. 39a. — Leather Tape Condenser. 

should be definitely based upon the diameter of the pin 
and the space to leave in between for the fairly free running 
of the fibres — say, one-fourth pin to three-fourths space. 

As the satisfactory holding of the fibres by the pins is 
the basis of the Noble comb, it will be realized that, not 
only must the distance apart and thickness of the pins be 
taken into account, but also the set-over or space over which 
the pins are set (see Figs. 40 and 40a). 

The Heilman comb in its various forms is the best 



PEOOESSES PREPARATOEY TO SPINNIIVG 



163 



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"""""""""""aDODODDOOOaOODOaDDDODDnnODDnDOBnOOnOOODOIlDtlDODlja 

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oooooooooooooooo 



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ElG. 40. — Pricking from a Long Wool Noble Comb Circle. Note. — For 
a Botany Comb the " set over " for A is §", the *' set over " for 
B is 1|". 

example of the vertical circular comb. Briefly, it consists 
of a pair of jaws to hold a tuft of fibres, a comb cylinder to 
comb one end of this tuft, a pair of rollers to take hold of 

M 2 



i 



■ Fibre ik, 



45S 



h- 



Spaqft ! Pi". A 




Fig. •iOA.— View of Wool Fibre in the Pins of a Noble Comb. Drawn 

to scale. 



II 



Plan. 




El evati on. 
Fig. 41.— Plan and Elevation of a Drawing-box. 



166 



TEXTILES 




o 



the combed end, combs through which the uncombed end 
may be drawn and thus combed, and a contmuous lap 
forming arrangement. As in most combs the operation of 
combing must be more or less gradual, the comb cylinder 



PEOCESSES PEEPARATOEY TO SPINNING 



167 



here employed has the first row of teeth fairly openly set, 
the next closer, and so on, the finest being set about 60 per 
inch for wool and about 80 for cotton. There is also a 




Fig. 43. — French Drawing Frame in Plan and Elevation. — A, back 
drafting rollers; B, porcupine; O, front drafting rollers; D, 
rubbing leathers ; E, balling head. 

preparation of the sliver for combing prior to the jaws 

referred to coming into action. 

The Drawing-box. — This is similar in many respects 

to the gill-box, but laaks the gills or fallers, their 



168 



TEXTILES 



place being taken by carriers which support the wool 
between back and front rollers. The distance between back 
and front rollers is usually somewhat greater than the 
length of the longest fibre being treated, so that in part 
fibre may be said to be worked by fibre (see Fig. 41). 

The Cone Drawing-box. — So far as the drawing action of 
this box is concerned the action is the same as in the 
ordinary box. As remarked, however, with reference to 




fr^^^ 




Fig. 43a. — Enlarged View of principal parts in a French. Drawing-box. 

the scouring machine, the getting of the material into the 
machine and out of the machine again may be no trifling 
matter ; in fact it may be and in this case is more of a 
problem than the main operation itself. To put the matter 
briefly — in a cone-box the material is positively wound 
on to suitable sized bobbins with practically no strain upon 
it, while in the case of the ordinary drawing-box twist must 
be put into the sliver to give it sufficient strength to pull the 
bobbin round after the flyer. It is thus evident that with a 
cone-regulated wind-on two great advantages accrue — firstly, 
the shvers may be drawn much softer and thus a better final 
spin obtained, and less consumption of power in the machine 
be required ; and secondly, larger bobbins may be employed, 
resulting in more economical working, especially for large 



PEOCESSES PEEPAEATOEY TO SPINNING 169 

quantities. It is also interesting to note that as both 
flyer and bobbin are positively driven, bobbin may lead 
flyer instead of flyer leading the bobbin as ordinarily obtains. 
The relative advantages of these two methods are worthy 
of careful consideration. 

It is interesting to note that with the cone frame the 
limit of the strength of the sliver is not in the winding on 
to the bobbin, but in the pulling of the sliver or roving off 
the bobbin (see Fig. 42). 

The French Drawing-box. — This consists of back-rollers {A, 
A'), porcupine or circular gill or fibre controller (B), front 
rollers (C), rubbing leathers (D), and delivering head (E) 
(Figs. 43 and 43a). No twist is here inserted, so that a pith- 
like thread is produced. The arrangement enables doubling 
and drafting to be effected most readily and with little fibre 
strain, and practically does away with the necessity for gills 
working on screws. The value of this method of producing 
soft spin mixtures has probably not yet been fully realized in 
this country. It is interesting to note that French drawing- 
boxes are interesting not only owing to their essential principle 
of the open treatment of wool slivers, but also owing to the 
special feed and delivery necessitated. Thus the feed-creel 
carries the balls of slivers upright, thus reducing friction ; 
and the delicate slivers issuing from the rubbing leathers are 
built up on an ordinary traverse balling head or, if very fine 
and delicate, as in the last rover, upon a variable-traverse 
balling head, which lays the slivers side by side in a beautifully 
exact manner. 



CHAPTEE VII 

THE PRINCIPLES OF WEAVING 

As previously remarked, tlie art of weaving, or perhaps 
more correctly the art of " interlacing," preceded that of 
spinning. The " wattles " we read of in connection with 
early methods of building were no doubt willow or other 
pliant stems of trees or plants interlaced to form a firm foun- 
dation for plastering upon. Baskets were similarly made 
from twigs of suitable thickness, and many other interlacings 
no doubt preceded the actual art of weaving in the evolution 
of every race and every country. The idea of actuating in 
two series all the strands running in one direction, forming a 
" warp," would soon develop where strands or threads of any 
required length were forthcoming from which to form the 
warp. The half-heald worked by hand would then appear, 
followed by the full-heald bringing the feet into play as ah 
aid to the hands. The method of throwing the weft through 
successive sheds or openings of the warp-threads would 
similarly pass through many stages before arriving at the 
present day shuttle and picking apparatus : indeed the fly 
shuttle itself only appeared in 1738. At first the whole length 
of warp would be stretched out upon the ground and the 
weaver would advance as he interlaced the weft from one end 
of the piece to the other. Then the idea of winding the woven 
cloth on to a roller, letting in the warp from an extension rope, 
would be developed. The idea of beaming the warp on to a 



THE PRINCIPLES OF WEAVING HI 

roller and of winding up the cloth as woven in order that the 
weaver might remain seated in one position and thus work to 
the greatest advantage is still in embryo in some semi-civilized 
districts. It is more than probable that long before the hand- 
loom was in any sense developed very elaborate textures were 
produced — very laboriously it is true — by hand, almost thread 
by thread and pick by pick. The art of gauze weaving, for 
example, was perfectly known to the Egyptians, as in 
mummy cloths we find some really elaborate styles of this 
order of interlacing. Pile weaving would also be practised 
in very narrow fabrics or ribbons. Thus it may be said 
that the art of weaving passed from the stage when very 
simple means were employed to effect interlacing, to the 
stage when very complex hand processes were employed 
in producing elaborate design; then through a stage in 
which endeavours were made to markedly increase the 
output by the hand method, finally culminating in the auto- 
matic production of fabrics on the power-loom. It may 
safely be said that so far as we can tell all the most 
intricate and pleasing methods of weaving by hand came 
to England from the Continent of Europe. On the other 
hand most of the mechanical methods of reproducing the 
somewhat complicated hand methods went from this country 
to the Continent. Of course there are exceptions to this, 
but such are exceedingly few and really tdvial. 

To-day it may be said that there are practically three 
kinds of weaving, viz.: — Unit Weaving, as illustrated in 
Axminster carpets; Group Unit Weaving, as illustrated 
in the ordinary loom ; and Average Weaving, as illustrated 
in Lappet weaving and in the Electric Jacquard. 

The Axminster carpet method of weaving is simply an 



172 TEXTILES 

imitation of the Oriental knot, as practised in the making of 
Turkey carpets and in certain Gobelins tapestries, both hand 
productions. The weaver— if such he may be termed — 
simply selects from his bundle of yarn the right colour for 
a small defined section of the carpet he is making, and 
knots this yarn into that section. As there is no limit to 
the colours employed and as the structure is firm and well 
knotted together, the result obtained is usually magnifi- 
cent. The Axminster carpet loom follows this hand method 
as exactly as possible. As each individual pile thread is 
" latched " by another distinct thread backed by other 
threads, the term " unit " weaving is employed. 

The group-unit system results from arranging as many 
threads as possible in a warp to interlace in the same way, 
and then to fix these upon the same apparatus — usually 
a heald-shaft — which thus very simply works them all 
together exactly as required. Thus if there are 2,000 ends 
in a warp and plain cloth is to be produced, the odd ends to 
the number of 1,000 will be mounted on one heald-shaft, 
and the even ends to the number of 1,000 upon another 
heald-shaft. Thus each thread is a unit to itself, but there 
is a grouping of units to effect simplification in production. 
This system is by far the most frequently employed, and 
consequently will be dealt with at some length later. 

The average weaving method is quite distinct from the 
other two methods, as no attempt is here made to work 
each thread with absolute accuracy as in the other two 
methods. In certain Electric Jacquards,^ for example, a 
rough selection of the threads in accordance with the 

1 Carver's Electric Jacquard, employed to a limited extent in the 
linen districts of Ireland, is an excellent example of this system. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF WEAVING ITS 

requirements of the design is effected, while in the case of 
the Lappet frame, although an endeavour is made to work so 
accurately that each needle places its thread precisely in 
the cloth, still a rough averaging up only is attained. 
With more perfect mechanical appliances it is just possible 
that this system will be much more fully utilised in 
the future. The Szczepanik designing and card-cutting 
apparatus forms an interesting attempt in this direction. 

Group-Unit Weaving. — In this method of weaving it is 
obviously necessary that all previous processes to the 
actual weaving should be perfectly carried out if really 
satisfactory weaving is to be the result. The first necessity 
is . a yarn which will weave satisfactorily. To obtain 
this at a reasonable rate becomes year by year more 
difficult, as the tendency towards cheapness becomes 
more pronounced. As a rule a yarn with a minimum 
strength of 4 ounces is the very weakest which should be 
employed. 

The warping operation consists in obtaining a given 
number of threads (say 2,000), of a given length (say 
100 yards), in a given order (sometimes any order will do ; 
sometimes a colour scheme, say four black, two grey, four 
white, two grey, must be maintained), and at an equal 
tension, in a convenient form for being wound on to the 
warp-beam of the loom. Hand-warping is only resorted to 
for pattern warps. The upright warping mill is still 
largely employed both for cotton and wool warps, but is 
frequently inefficient, as it tends to develop stripiness in 
the pieces — both a sectional stripiness and a distributed 
stripiness, owing to its failure to control the tension on indi- 
vidual threads and groups of threads unless very carefully 



174 



TEXTILES 



set and geared. The cheese system is still largely employed, 
but again tends to show a defect in cheese widths, which while 
not noticeable in fancies, in plains may become very objection- 
able. The Scotch or horizontal warping mill is gaining in 
favour and for fancies is practically perfect, but for plains 
also tends to show a defect in sections of the number of bobbins 




Fig. 44. — Improved Beaming Machine. 

warped with. The warper's beam system (Fig. 44), all things 
considered, seems the most perfect system, as all defects tend 
to become distributed and thus neutralize one another. This 
system is simplicity itself for plain wraps, and for fancies, 
with a little arrangement, may also be used to advantage. 
The American spooling system of warping appears to be 
losing favour, even in the United States and Canada, but may 
be useful under certain limited conditions. 



THE PEINOIPLES OF WEAVING 



175 




Fig. 44a.— Masurel "Vertical Sizing Machine. 




T. 



178 TEXTILES 

Sizing follows warping (see Fig. 44a), the idea being to coat 
the thread and thus prevent its wearing flufty in the gears of 
the loom ; and further, if possible, to strengthen the thread. 
In the past the tendency has always been to put vegetable 
size on to vegetable fibres and animal size on to animal fibres. 
To-day, however, the tendency is to put vegetable sizes on to 
every kind of material, no doubt on account of cheapness. 
Of course care must be taken that the vegetable size is readily 
extracted from the fabrics during the finishing operation, 
otherwise clouded pieces, owing to this irregular sizing, may 
result. Certain combination warping and sizing machines 
are placed on the market, but the call for these has rather 
declined than increased. Hot-air drying rather than cylinder 
drying is now almost universal for wool warps. 

After sizing follows dressing, which consists in winding 
the warp at a uniform tension — both across and lengthwise 
— on to the loom beam. English dressers prefer to compress 
the warp on the beam with the tension that the warp itself 
wiU naturally stand, but American dressers often attempt to 
compress the warp still further in order that the warp beam 
may be made to carry a greater length of warp^ thus saving 
a certain number of tyings-in. 

Drawing or twisting-in follows. If the warp is to be passed 
through a new set of gears it will have to be drawn by hand 
through these. A good drawer-in working with a reacher-in 
passes about 1,000 to 1,200 threads per hour. Should it only 
be necessary to twist or tye the new warp to the warp — or 
" thrum " as it is called — already in the gears, this may 
readily be effected either in the loom or out of the loom at 
the rate of about 1,800 threads per hour. If the warp is plain 
and no precise order of coloured threads necessary, the recently 



THE PRINCIPLES OF WEAVING 179 

introduced " Barber- Warp Tyer " (Fig. 44c) will twist or rather 
tye-in a warp out of the loom at the rate of 250 knots or threads 
per minute.^ This machine works on the " average " principle ; 
thus, although almost perfect, it cannot be relied upon to 
maintain an absolute order of the colours in a fancy warp. 

Reference may here be made to the various styles of healds 
put on the market. It is probable that not nearly sufficient 
attention is given to this section of the work, as good wearing, 
easily regulated, and convenient styles of healds are most 
necessary. Of late wire healds seem to have come much more 
into use, but there are good and very bad styles of wire healds, 
so that great care should be exercised in selecting these. 
Again, a shed full of wire healds means much more weight for 
the engine to lift. 

After drawing-in, " sleying," or the passing of the threads 
singly or in groups of two, three, four, five or six through 
the reed is necessary. This is effected at the rate of about 
2,000 threads per hour by means of two sleying knives worked 
alternately by hand. Reeds again should receive more 
attention than they at present claim. English reed makers 
can make a good ordinary article, but German and French 
reed makers are much ahead in the production of really 
fine reeds with properly feathered dents regularly soldered 
together. 

After the warp has been passed through the gears and 
reed the warp-beam and gears must be lifted into the loom— 
the aisles in the loom shed being sufficiently wide to ensure 

1 A mechanical " drawing-in " (Fig. 44b) machine is now placed on 
the market. A " lease-picking " machine is also used in America to 
pick a lease after sizing by means of which to select the threads for 
tying or drawing-in, 

N 2 



180 TEXTILES 

this without damage to either warp or gears (or better still a 
single overhead rail laid on to transport beams and gears 
from the warping room direct to any loom in the shed), the 
gears hung in position, the reed placed in position, the warp 
attached to the cloth beam by means of a level wrapper, and 
then after the necessary gearing up the actual operation of 
weaving ensues. 

The principal movements during weaving are as follows : 

Shedding, or forming a passage for the shuttle through 
the warp threads, certain of the threads being definitely raised 
and the others depressed ; threads lifted and depressed being 
varied for a succession of sheds. 

Picking, or the throwing of the shuttle through the shed 
which has been formed, leaving the pick or weft-thread behind 
it in the shed. 

Beating-up, i.e., the reed beating the pick just inserted up 
to the cloth already formed to make a firm, even texture. 

Letting-ofi[, i.e., unwrapping warp from the warp-beam to 
take the place of that used up in interlacing with the weft 
to form the cloth. 

Taking-up, i.e., winding up on to the cloth beam the cloth 
woven, this movement of necessity being worked in con- 
junction with the letting-off. 

The following accessory mechanisms are practically neces- 
sary to ensure economical and satisfactory work : 

The Boxing Mechanism, by means of which any required 
colour of yarn is presented, in its shuttle, on the picking plane 
and thus thrown into the cloth in the order required. 

The Stop-Rod or the Loose-Reed-Mechanism, through which 
the loom is brought to a standstill should the shuttle fail to 
reach the box, serious breakage of warp threads thus being 



THE PEINCIPLES OF WEAVING 181 

avoided. The first style is applied to plain or rising box 
looms, the latter to circular box looms. 

The Weft-fork Mechanism, which only permits the loom to 
go on with its work while weft is presented to it. Should 
the weft be broken or absent the loom is immediately brought 
to a standstill. There are two forms, the side-weft fork for 
plain looms and looms with boxes at one end only, and the 
centre-weft fork for double box looms. 

The Warp-Stop Mechanism, by means of which the loom is 
brought to a standstill should any warp-thread break. 

The Spooling or Shuttling Mechanism, by means of which 
when the cop of yarn placed in the shuttle is finished or about 
to be finished either it or the^wEole shuttle is automatically 
ejected and a fresh spool or shuttle pushed in to take its place 
in the first case without stopping the loom and in both cases 
without the intervention of the attendant. 

Before describing certain typical looms placed upon the 
market reference must be made to the various methods of 
effecting the primary weaving movements and also to 
certain points of importance with reference to the accessory 
mechanisms. 

Shedding. — To the uninitiated this may seem a simple 
matter requiring Uttle consideration. Perhaps this would 
be so were the yarns which it is necessary to weave always 
strong and were time no object. But yarns must some- 
times be woven which will hardly stand dressing, and looms 
must run from 80 up to 300 picks a minute — although a high 
speed is by no means always economical — and thus it comes 
about that most careful and detailed consideration must be 
given to every point in the shedding mechanism. The 
chief points for consideration are — firstly, the method of 



182 



TEXTILES 



selecting the healds to be raised and the healds to be 
lowered — absolute certainty must here be ensured ; secondly, 
the movement of the healds to put as little strain as possible 
on to the warp threads during the change of shed ; and 




FiQ. io. — Tappet Loom witli outside treading. 

thirdly, the satisfactory holding of the threads up and the 
threads down during picking to ensure the safe passage of 
the shuttle. Of the varied mechanisms to effect this, the 
Tappet mechanism (either inside or outside tread, with 
"top" or "under" motion) is the simplest and most 
satisfactory, as the curve for the " rise " and for the " fall " 



THE PEINCIPLES OP WEAVING 



183 



of the heald-shaffc can be made to give a simple harmonic 
motion or any other desired motion, while the " dwell " of 
the heald-shaft may he regulated to a nicety (Fig. 45). 
There has recently been placed on the market a centre-shed 
Tappet which markedly tends to effect perfect interlacing of 




Fig. 45a. — Heavy Coating Loom. 

the threads at the least possible tension. Unfortunately, the 
interlacing or figuring capacity of the Tappet loom is not great, 
so that for anything above a weave repeating on 12 to 16 shafts 
a Dobby must be employed, while for anything above, say, 
36 shafts, a Jacquard is employed. The shedding arrange- 
ments of Dobby looms are usually in some sense an imitation 
of the Tappet action (see Fig. 45a), but the following variations 
are to be met with : close shedding and open shedding Dobbies, 
single-lift and double-lift Dobbies, with combinations of the 



184 



TEXTILES 




pL, 



O rO 



O CO 



6c m 

(I) t^ 



P^ 



same. Each possesses certain advantages either for the 
fabric being produced or in quick and perfect running. 
The only difference in principle between the Dobby and the 
Jacquard is that in the Dobby each heald-shaft may usually 



THE PEINCIPLES OF WEAVING 



1S5 




Fig. 47. — General view ol: a Jacquard Loom, 
be controlled positively whether lifted or depressed, while 



186 TEXTILES 

in the Jacquard the lifting only is positive, the depressing 
being effected by weights on the harness cords. The usual 
figuring capacities of Jacquards are — Bradford, 300 or 600 ; 
Huddersfield, 400 ; Belfast, 1,200 to 1,800 ; but there are 
naturally variations from these precise numbers in each 
district and for specific purposes. (See Fig. 47.) 

Weaving wages largely depend upon the shaft or harness 
capacity of looms. 

Picking. — The throwing of the shuttle through the shed 
— under the guiding influences of the shuttle-race and reed 
— is a most difficult and important matter. If thrown too 
strongly it is liable to break the weft yarn and to wear itself 
and the loom out quickly, and if thrown too weakly the loom 
knocks off. Again, the tendency of shuttles to fly out of the 
shed has necessitated the adoption of shuttle-guards to 
protect the weavers. There are two main types of picking 
motions, viz., over and under. The over-pick is the 
* sweeter " and safer, but unfortunately consumes a large 
quantity of picking-strap. The under-pick partakes less 
of the slinging character than does the over-pick, so 
that for the weaving of lightly-twisted weft yarns such as 
mohair and alpaca the over-pick system possesses marked 
advantages. 

Beating-up.— Sufficient attention is not paid to this motion, 
by many loom makers, as the satisfactory running of the 
loom may largely depend upon the satisfactory running of 
the going-part which carries the shuttles, etc., as well as 
the reed. The points to be carefully considered are — sweep 
of crank, length of connecting pin, method of attachment 
of connecting pin to sword-arms, and the relationship of 
sword-arm connections to crank centre. 




60 



^ 









6 

M 



188 TEXTILES 

Letting-off and Taking-up. — These two mechanisms are 
usually worked in conjunction, for what the cloth requires 
must be delivered to it by the warp-beam. Both these 
mechanisms may either be positive or negative, but usually 
the taking-up motion is positive (so that the wefting of the 
cloth is perfectly controlled) and the letting-off negative. 
The latest form of positive letting-off motion, however, in 
which the tension of the warp itself regulates the letting-o:ff, 
has proved a marked practical success and is nearly always 
adopted for heavy wefting. For lighter work and even for 
some forms of heavy work the ordinary or special form of 
negative letting-off motion is adopted. The taking-up of 
the cloth woven is almost invariably effected by means of a 
friction or sand roller (which bears upon the cloth beam, 
and thus turns it by friction at a fixed rate, notwithstanding 
its increase in circumference) driven through a train of 
wheels, the last one of which receives its movement from a 
pawl on the sword of the going-part. One or more of these 
wheels may be changed to give the required number of 
picks in specific cloths. In the best train there is a direct 
relationship between the picks per inch and the teeth in the 
change wheel. 

The Boxing Mechanism. — Boxes are made in two forms — 
rising and falling, and circular. In rising boxes there is no 
limit as to size or number, while in the case of circular 
boxes there is a distinct practical limit in size, and it is noc 
as a rule convenient to have more than six boxes to the 
round. Thus, for heavy thick materials rising boxes of 
great size are employed ; while for fine cotton, silk, etc., the 
smaller circular boxes are mostly used. 

Looms are made in three forms with reference to their 



THE PRINCIPLES OE WEAVING 189 

boxes, viz., without boxes, i.e., plain looms ; boxes at one end 
only ; and boxes at both ends. In looms with boxes at one 
end only there are limits in colouring, as only double picks 
may be inserted without very special arrangement and loss 
of time, while in one most important type of circular box 
there is a further limit as to which colours may be presented 
on the picking plane. Boxes at one or both sides are now 
largely employed in weaving solid colours to effectually mix 
the weft yarn and thus guard against streakiness. 

The addition of boxes to a loom usually reduces its speed 
from 5 per cent, to 10 per cent, and necessitates the payment 
of a slightly higher wage to the weaver. 

The Stop-rod and Loose-Reed Mechanism. — Plain and rising 
box looms are fitted with the stop-rod mechanism, while 
circular box looms are usually fitted with the loose-reed 
mechanism. In the stop-rod mechanism the reed is prevented 
from coming within less than, say, 4 inches of the fell of the 
cloth, unless the shuttle is in the box, by means of a stop- 
rod which plays against a special casting, termed the 
" frog." As the shuttle normally enters the box, however, 
it lifts this stop-rod clear of the " frog " and so the loom 
proceeds with its task. Should the shuttle fail to reach the 
box and stop in the shed, the loom is knocked-oiif by means 
of the stop-rod coming against the special casting or "frog," 
which, in turn, acts upon the setting-on lever and loom brake. 
Few or no warp threads will be broken down, as the reed can- 
not get nearer than about 4 inches to the fell of the cloth — 
a distance which is just judged sufficient to save breakage 
of warp threads when the shuttle is left in the shed. 

In the case of the loose reed mechanism the shuttle is 
allowed to knock the reed out to prevent the reed breaking 



190 TEXTILES 

the shuttle through the warp threads. To allow of this the 
reed is only lightly held until it is within, say, 2 inches of 
the cloth — ^when, if the shuttle had stopped in the shed, the 
reed would be forced out and the belt thrown on to the loose 
pulley — after which it is firmly locked for the beat up. Owing 
to this locking and unlocking of the reed heavy wefting cannot 
be efEected by this mechanism. 

The Weft-fork Mechanism. — In plain looms this is at the 
side, close to the setting-on handle. It consists of a small 
three-pronged fork passing through a grid in the going- 
part, across which grid the weft has to pass. If the weft be 
present it does not allow the prongs of the fork to pass 
through the grid, but, instead, tilts the fork. At this 
moment a hammer head is drawn back by means of a 
projection on the low shaft of the loom (once every two 
picks), but nothing happens if the weft is there and has 
tilted the fork. If the weft is not there, however, the fork 
is not tilted and a catch upon its extremity is caught by 
the hammer head and the loom thus brought to a standstill. 
Mr. Pickle, of Burnley, has patented a markedly improved 
form of this fork which mechanically may be considered 
perfect, and this cannot be said of the ordinary form. 

The centre weft-fork mechanism — which must be em- 
ployed when there are boxes at both ends — acts through 
the weft supporting if present, or allowing to fall if absent, 
a lightly-weighted fork, which, by means of a slide, is 
connected with the setting-on lever. 

The Warp-stop Mechanism. — While the weft- stop mechan- 
ism has always been considered as essential to the 
satisfactory running of a loom, the warp-stop mechanism 
has never been in favour, and obviously it can only be of 



THE PEINCIPLES OE WEAVING 191 

economical value in the case of weaving tender warps (when 
possibly it helps to break down threads) or where one 
attendant looks after a large number of looms. With the 
comparatively recent introduction of the automatic loom, 
warp-stop methods have increased in favour, but their 
application in anything but very plain work is still 
comparatively rare. 

There are two forms placed on the market — the mechanical 
and the electrical. The chief objection to them is the time 
taken in readjustment when drawing in a new warp, while, 
of course, it is conceivable that they may in all warps 
occasionally cause ends to break down. Possibly the 
greatest advantage lies in that a weaver cannot produce 
an imperfect piece as the loom will not run with ends 
down. 

The Spooling or Shuttling Mechanism. — This is the 
mechanism of most recent introduction, although so called 
automatic looms were tried about forty years ago. If one 
weaver is to attend to sixteen or twenty-four looms, it is 
evident that there must be some self- shuttling arrangement, 
or there will always be some looms standing. On the other 
hand, the additional mechanism involved may necessitate 
additional attention on the part of the tuner or overlooker 
— usually a high-wage man — and hence he will not be able 
to follow so many looms. 

In both the wool and the cotton trade the Northrop loom 
(Figs. 46, 48 and 49) — one form of the automatic loom — is being 
largely adopted. The spool ejecting mechanism in the cotton 
loom was brought into play by the weft running off, so that each 
change of spool was accompanied by a broken pick in the piece. 
This broken pick would be a serious defect in cloths other 



192 



TEXTILES 



than cotton, so that some means to indicate for the ejection 
of the spool before all the weft has run off must be adopted. 

The latest Northrop looms necessitate the winding of the 
weft on to a special spool, which controls the spool-changing 
mechanism through a mechanical feeler. In the weaving of 




Fig. 49. — Northrop Standard Narrow Cotton Loom. 

thick materials, such as blankets, the employment of large 
spools, which are automatically piled into the shuttle without 
stoppage of the loom, results in a markedly increased output. 

In some few cases the shuttle-changing loom — either the 
Hattersley or the Stafford — is employed. 

Automatic machinery of this type run slowly — and fre- 



THE PEINCIPLES OF WEAVING l'J3 

qtiently without hands present — give>s a wonderfully increased 
output in comparison with the old type of loom. 

The classification of looms is based chiefly upon the type 
of shedding mechanism, but sometimes upon the boxing 
capacity. Thus looms are usually classified as Tappet, 
Dobby, or Jacquard looms, but manufacturers of tweeds 
and coloured fancy goods naturally think more of the boxing 
capacity than of the figuring capacity, as they usually only 
require a four or six thread twill weave, depending upon 
colour as a means of beautifying their fabrics, although, 
of course, the colour is usually applied to a good sound 
structure. 

The outside tread Tappet loom is most largely employed 
in Yorkshire for all classes of simple interlacings, including 
such light weight goods as Orleans, Italians, cashmeres, 
serges, etc. The inside tread Tappet loom is more largely 
employed in the Lancashire cotton trade for all styles of 
simple cotton fabrics, and in broad looms for heavy Yorkshire 
woollens. The Woodcroft Tappet — a special form of box 
Tappet placed outside the loom framework — is largely 
employed in weaving heavy cotton fabrics. 

The Dobby loom — of various types and makes — is employed 
in both Lancashire and Yorkshire for fancy styles, which are 
not floral, but rather fancy in the sense of being compounded 
of more or less intricate interlacings. 

The Jacquard loom is employed when elaborate figuring 
is necessary, as in this loom from 100 to 1,800 threads may 
be controlled individually by means of cards with holes cut 
or uncut to produce the required pattern. 

For special purposes combinations of the three types are 

T. O 



194 TEXTILES 

frequently met with. In tapestries, for example, the Jacquard 
is frequently mounted in conjunction with a Tappet or a 
Dobby ; for skirtings Tappets and a Dobby are frequently 
combined, while boxes may be employed in conjunction with 
any and every shedding combination, sometimes the relation- 
ships of Jacquard, Tappets, and boxes being very complex, 
but really most delightfully controlled ; from which it will be 
gathered that the weaver who can perfectly control such a 
combination is no mean, unintellectual person, but rather must 
be regarded as a truly matured craftsman possessing at least 
some of the qualities of the methodical scientist. 



CHAPTEE VIII 

THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING 

As it is generally recognized that the perception of form 
precedes that of colour it is more than probable that the 
first attempts at woven decorations would take the line of 
diagonals, stripe and check effects, possibly produced by 
interlaced rushes or bands.^ Just as the Norwegian 
peasant takes out his knife and carves the wooden wall by 
the side of his chair so would our ancestors amuse or profit 
themselves by schemes of interlacings with such materials 
as were to hand. Thus we can well imagine the various 
natural shades of wool such as are indirectly referred to in 
early Biblical history for example, affording opportunities 
for the development of design in form long before artificial 
colours made their appearance. For the sake of variety 
various kinds of materials would next be tried, and so a 
second factor of interest would be introduced. Finally, 
the appreciation of colour would be developed and attempts 
made at colouring the raw materials by such herbs, etc., 
as were available, or rather of which the colouring pro- 
perties were known. For it must have been a grievous 
thing to the ancients to discover that red poppies would 
not yield their colour, that Tyrian purple must be sought 
for in a mollusc and not in the gorgeous garb of nature. 
As has been already pointed out, the inborn love of man for 

1 The Scotch, plaid was originally a plait or possibly a number of 
interlaced plaits. 

o2 



196 TEXTILES 

artistic productions was developed long before the present- 
day economic spirit ; hence artistic weaving was developed 
at a very early date and was followed much later by 
attempts, firstly, at quicker production of artistic patterns, 
and, secondly, by attempts to produce goods more econo- 
mically and by simpler means. A relic of this evolution 
is in evidence to-day in the fact that so far as the art of 
designing and weaving is concerned England is absolutely 
indebted to the Continent, nearly everything good coming to 
us from Italy, France, the Netherlands, or Germany. On 
the other hand, so far as economical production is concerned, 
the Continent is indebted to England, we leading the way 
in all power machinery. Curiously enough, America led. the 
way during the last century in devising means for the quicker 
production of elaborate styles, as instanced in the plush wire 
loom and the Axminster carpet loom. This was, no doubt, due 
to the enormous wealth so rapidly developed resulting in a 
great call for what might be regarded as luxuries. 

Present-day textile design may be very conveniently studied 
under its factors — material, interlacing, and colour. Of 
course, there are many varied combinations of two or more 
of these factors, but brief study will prove that these factors 
are really the key to the thorough apprehension of all textile 
design, and that consequently each merits careful considera- 
tion. 

Materials. — These briefly are animal, insect, vegetable, 
mineral, and artificially produced fibres or filaments. 
Among the animal class are specially to be noted all the 
varieties of wool, mohair, alpaca, vicuna, cashmere, camels' 
hair, horsehair, rabbit fur, etc. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOUEING 197 

A special class is made of the insect fibres, seeing that 
they are so valuable and useful, and further that from the 
point of view of chemical reaction they cannot quite be 
classed with the true animal fibres. Cultivated and wild 
silks are the chief representations, while certain " spider " 
silks and other varieties of cocoons are continually making 
their appearance. 

The vegetable fibres may be divided into two very distinct 
classes — viz., the fluffy seed hair types of which cotton is 
the principal representative, but of which various " thistle- 
down " and other fibres keep putting in an appearance; 
and the stem fibres, such as flax, hemp, jute, china- grass, 
etc. Plants themselves, as notably the mosses, also are 
sometimes spun and woven. 

The mineral fibres are principally metallic threads, and 
such special minerals as asbestos and silica, which are 
specially spun and woven into fabrics for fire-resisting and 
other purposes and in the form of glass for pure novelty. 

The artificially produced fibres include artificial silk, 
artificial linen, artificial wool, paper, and, latest of all, some 
organic or crystalline forms of other substance somewhat of 
the same character as asbestos, which lately have been success- 
fully produced in Germany. 

It should be further noted in this connection that it is 
not sufficient to simply consider the raw material. The 
manner in which it has been prepared and spun may 
create differences as marked as the differences between 
some of these distinct classes. For example, there may be 
a greater diilercnce between woollen and worsted yarns and 
net and spun silk yarns than there is between raw wool and 
cotton. The arrangement of the fibres in the threads of 



198 TEXTILES 

which a fabric is composed, while not directly affecting the 
interlacing, may nevertheless indirectly cause the designer 
to adopt specific styles of interlacing to develop a particular 
characteristic in the resultant cloth ; so that it is cus- 
tomary to pay particular attention to this apparent detail, 
and especially to consider the conditions of twist in both 
single and twofold yarns. If, for example, three lots of 
two 40's black botany yarns are twisted 7 turns, 14 turns, 
and 28 turns per inch respectively, in the woven fabric 
they will show a marked difference. If the yarn be 
black and white twist not only will there be a difference in 
texture, but also in the speckled appearance of each lot of 
yarn as it appears in the piece. The direction of twist of 
warp and weft and also in relationship to twill interlacings 
is also very important. The reflection of light by yarns and 
fabrics calls for very careful consideration. 

Interlacing. — There are three recognized methods of 
producing fabrics— viz., by felting, by knitting, and by 
weaving. Felt fabrics are essentially fibre structures. 
Perfectly mixed and equalized films of wool are super- 
imposed one on the top of the other until a sheet, say, 40 
yards long, 60 inches broad, and 4 inches thick, of a more or 
less " fluffy " nature, is produced. This under heat and acid 
is hammered, milled, or felted into a comparatively thin 
texture known as "felt." 

Knitted textures usually consist of one thread interwoven 
with itself, but there are now varieties of knitted fabrics 
which do not entirely fulfil this condition. 

The above two classes, although most important, must in 
this work give precedence to the third class, the " woven " 
fabric. 



THE PHINCIPLES OP DESIGNING AND COLOURING 199 
Ordinary. Gauze. 




/ V V V 



Plush. 




Cutting Wire 



Looping Wire 



Fig. 50. — Ordinary, Gauze, and Plush Interlacings, i.e., straight 
thread, curved thread, and projecting thread structures. 



200 



TEXTILES 



Of woven fabrics it is evident that there will be three 
varieties, along with their combinations, viz., straight thread 
fabrics, curved thread fabrics and projecting thread fabrics, 
having their representation in the ordinary woven texture, 
the gauze texture and the plush texture respectively. (See 



r 



pin 



V. 




v_ 



Threads or Emls. 



Warp. 

Fig. 50a. — Showing, with a Fabric composed of White Warp and 

Black Weft, Plain Weave Interlacing. 

Fig. 50.) There are also certain special styles which do 
not well come within the range of any of the above three 
classes ; but these may best be considered as exceptions 
after the above three classes have been fully studied. All 
the woven fabrics increase vastly in interest if regarded as 



THE PBINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOXJEING 201 



"a mass of balancing strains." The adoption of this 
attitude results in most interesting developments, especially 
with reference to curved thread or gauze fabrics. 

Of the straight-thread or ordinary fabrics the following 
variations are to be noted : — 

(a) Variations in the makes of plain cloths, hopsacks, etc. 

(h) Eib cloths, plain and fancy, in both warp and 
vreft direction.; 

(c) Twill cloths, 
both plain and fancy ; 

(d) Eib-twill cloths 
of the "corkscrew" 
type ; 

(e) Sateen cloths, 
warp or weft face of 
various qualities ; 

(/) Crepe cloths, 
the antithesis of the 
sateen cloth ; 

(g) Spotted cloths 
based on the single 
cloth structure ; 

(h) Figured cloths 
based on the single cloth structure; 

(i) Extra warp or weft, or warp and weft figured cloths; 

(j) Double cloths or treble cloths for figuring or adding 
weight, or for both figuring and weight. 

In Figs. 42 and 42a illustrations (enlarged) of the chief 
of these varieties are given. 

There are many varieties in each of the foregoing 
classes, but as such would require a treatise larger than 




Fig. oOb. — Gauze Ground Fabric upon 
which a Plain Cloth and Weft Flush 
Fiffure is Thrown. 



202 



TEXTILES 



the present the reader is referred to the author's work on 
" Textile Design," and to "Designing for Shaft Work," by 
F. Donat, of Vienna (pubhshed in German only). 

Of curved thread or gauze fabrics the following variations 
are to be noted : — 

(a) Variation in the number of threads crossing : one 




Fig. 50c. —Plush Fabric. 



crossing one, two crossing two, one crossing three, one 
crossing four, etc. ; 

(h) Variation in the number of picks grouped together 
and in the manner in which they are grouped together by 
the crossing threads (see Fig. 52 and 52 a) ; 

(c) Variation in the yarns — thicknesses, colours, etc. — • 
woven together (see Fig. 52b) ; 

(d) Variation in the crossings — leno, gauze, plain— 
which may be woven together; 





Fig. 51.-1, Ordinary; 2, Warp-rib; and 3, Weft-rib Interlacings. 



204 



TEXTILES 



(e) Variation in figuring by various gauze or gauze and 
ordinary interlacings (see Fig. 50b) ; 

. (/) Variation by the introduction of extra materials 
(see Fig. 52c) ; 

(g) Variation producible by employing double-gauze 
structure (see Fig. 52d) ; 

(h) Variations by combining gauze and pile structures. 

Again, each of these classes has many varieties which 
cannot be dealt with here. 

4. 



-^^s^- 





Fig. 51a. — 4, Weft-back ; and 5, Double Cloth Interlacings. 

Of projecting thread structures usually termed " pile '' 
fabrics the two great varieties are warp and weft piles. 
The former, as will be realized by referring to Fig. 53, are 
formed by pulling up the warp out of the body of the cloth 
during weaving, usually by means of wires, to form a 
brush-like or " pile " surface. The latter are formed by 
floating certain picks over the surface of an otherwise 
firmly-woven piece and then throwing these floats up as curls 
by shrinking the ground texture or as a cut pile by severing 
these floats either in or out of the loom. In this latter 



THE PEINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOUEING 205 

1*1*1' |ti|ll 



LtI- 



^i-i- 



_|JL ijJLL|-L 

-'^ » ' I I I I 
■"I - "' » I I ■ • I 



/ crossing / I crossing 1 

SI- ^^l=I^H:|=|l 






i|±|±L iLL|4j-|- 

iJ-lJ-lJL II I ITi i I 

I I I I I I 11 I I II I I 

TniLTE ILJLLiplL 

/-i-i-K^i- r?FP/?i=r 

/ crossing 3 2 crossing 2 

Fig. 52.— Four Varieties of Simple Gauze Crossings. 



206 



TEXTILES 




Tig. 52a.— Gauze Structure with Grouping of the Picks as the 
Characteristic Feature. 




Fig. o2b. — Gauze Structme with Fancy Yarn Introduced. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING 207 

case some most useful types of pile fabrics are obtained 
— fustians and corduroys for example — by distributing or 
concentrating the pile on certain sections of the cloth by 
the suitable arrangement of the positions where the floating- 
picks are bound into the fabric. 

Of pile fabrics the follo\Ying varieties are to be noted : — 
Picks. 




Fig. 52c. — Double Weft Gauze. 

(a) Variation in density of pile, so that the ground 
texture may show through or may be completely hidden ; 

(b) Variation in length of pile; 

(c) Variation by the use of cut and looped pile — the 
difference between the same coloured yarn cut and looped 
being ample to design with (see Fig. 50c) ; 

(d) Variation in the form taken by the cut, or looped, 
or cut and looped piles, such as stripes, checks and figures. 

Perhaps in this class a special section should be devoted 
to varieties of piles produced on the "double-plush" 



208 



TEXTILES 




principle as illustrated in Fig. 54 ; but as these generally 
spealdng lend themselves to the same variations as the 
other pile fabrics already dealt with, they are considered 
together. There is no single work which fully treats the 

mmmm 

'kmmm 



vv 




Picks 



)^Face Cloth 



BacH Cloth 



Fig. 52d. — Double Gauze Interlacing. 

three sections of warp piles, weft piles and double piles ; but 
the work of Donat already cited may be consulted with 
advantage. 

The Use of Point-paper. — To facilitate designing squared 
or point-paper is employed Briefly it consists of spaces 



TflE PRIXCIPLES OE DESIGNING AND COLOURING 209 
A. Wai-p Pile 




Fig. 53.— Two Types of Pile Fabrics. 

lengthwise, representing warp threads, and spaces cross- 
wise representing weft threads, or "picks," as they are 
termed. Tliis paper must not be regarded as so many squares, 




]7xG. 54.— Illustrating the Production of Double Plushes, i.e., Two 
Single Pile Fabrics, face to face. 



T. 



210 



TEXTILES 



\ 




" I ' ' ~ ' I I ' 

I ' ' ' I I I I I 

XI" I I ' 

J- > I ' I ' Z 1 ' 

'I I I I " ~ I I I 



I I I I ~i 
'_2 J _i_ ~\~\~ ' 

I I III' 
I I _j _i_ 

I I ~ _ 

lilt _ 

T" _i_ [_ II ~ ' 

J I ■ ' 




Fig. 55. — Example of the Eepresentation of Simple Interlaciugs on 
; Point or Square Paper. 

but as warp threads — say of a white material — under which 
lie so many weft picks — say of a dark material. Then 
whenever weft is required to come over warp, that part^'cular 



THE PEINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOUEING 211 



section — in tliis case a square — is marked black. Thus to 
the well-versed textile designer the point-paper weave does 
[airly correctly represent the actual appearance of the 
cloth, although it is obvious that such weaves must be 
viewed through the eyes of the designer's many and varied 
experiences. To further elucidate these somewhat brief 
remarks six examples of interlacing, with their respective 
paint-paper plans, are given in Fig. 55. 







Fia. 56.— Example of the Reversing of Pattern due to Defective 
Grading of Colour Ranges. 

Colour. — Colour may obviously be applied to all the fore- 
going fabrics. So subtle is the colouring of textiles that the 
designer well versed in the colouring of one class of goods 
may, nay, probably will, be unsuccessful in the colouring of 
another class of goods. 

In the abstract colours should be apportioned to the fabric 
for which they are designed ; they should be appropriate and 
artistic in themselves if solid shades, and in their combina- 
tions for multi-coloured styles. Note should also be made 
that colours cannot be considered irrespective of luminosities, 

f2 



212 



TEXTILES 




Black 



Red 



Orange 



Yellow 



Green 



Blue 



DM 



LM 




j'v^'y^l 



f 





Violet 

Fig. 57. — Illustrating the Grading of Colour Eanges to obviate re- 
versing of Pattern. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING 213 

so that in every colour scheme the two features, colour and 
luminosity, are really brought into play. 

From the practical point of view the first consideration 
should be the fastness of the colours selected to finishing, 
light and ordinary wearing conditions. This is usually 
ensured by conducting an actual scouring test under severe 
conditions and by exposing to strong sunshine for a definite 
period. 

The organization of graded ranges of shades and tints of 
correct tones and intensities is the next important factor. 
This will best be effected by basing the ranges selected upon 
the tints, shades and tones of the spectrum colours. It is not 
necessary that a complete range of spectrum colours shall be 
represented. If, for instance, greens are fashionable, the green 
tints, shades and tones may at least predominate in the selec- 
tion, and so on according to the prevalent taste in colour. 
In order that the reversing illustrated in Fig. 56 may be 
avoided it is very desirable that the ranges of shades should 
be organized upon the lines illustrated in Fig. 57 from which 
it will be gathered that so long as the designer takes, say, his 
ground colours from the same grade of darks and his checking 
colours from the same grade of lights the reversing of the 
pattern illustrated in Fig. 56 will be impossible, and hence the 
spoiling of, say, a range of eight patterns by one of the eight 
being accidentally reversed will be avoided. A special method 
of scheming colours is shown in Fig. 57a which, upon the whole, 
is one of the best ever devised. Three colours (a, b and c) 
are each graded with white, or with black ; or, as in this 
figure, with white, mid grey and black. Each colour keeps 
to its own circle and the crossing of its circles gives the mixing 
of the colours. 



214 



TEXTILES 



By some such organization of colours as one or other of 
these the designer will find that not only can he do with about 
half the shades he would otherwise require, but he will also 
find that his ranges of colours actually inspire him to design. 
Some of the French pattern firms supply magnificent ranges of 




Pig. 57 a. — Diagram ilhistiafing the Effect of Mixing 
Three Colours in varying Proportions, 



colours which the textile designer should always have by 
him, as such, even if not of direct use, tend to guide one 
into good methods, and good method in textile design and 
colouring results in economical production without any 
real suppression of the artistic feeling and instinct of the 
designer. 

Figure Designing. — This involves a two-fold qualification, 



THE PEINCIPLES OF DESIGNING AND COLOURING 215 

viz., the qualification of the artist to create artistic forms 
and patterns, and the qualification of the cloth constructor 
not only to render in the fabric the patterns designed, but 
rather to qualify the artistic qualification so that the limits 
of textile design may be taken as an inspiration rather than 
as a limitation. 

Brief consideration of the fact that woven fabrics are 
composed of threads at right angles to one another will 
result in the limits of textile design being fully realized. 

In designing for figures any of the structures mentioned 
on p. 201 may be employed ; but as a rule the designer 
will be given a typical foundation fabric to design to. The 
usual limit for the Lancashire and Huddersfield design is 
about 400 threads, i.e., a cloth 100 threads per inch, about 
a 4-inch pattern. Bradford, however, largely employs a 
jacquard figuring with 300 threads, while Belfast and some 
of the silk and tapestry districts figure up to 1,200 or 1,800 
threads by any required number of picks. 



CHAPTER IX 



THE PRINCirLES OF FINISHING 



Most fabrics are somewhat uncouth and unsatisfactory 
as taken from the loom. Some few, such as various silks 
and a few cotton styles, are not markedly changed by the 
subsequent finishing; others, such as woolleu fabrics, are 
so changed that it is difficult to believe that the harsh, 
unsightly fabric taken from the loom can be so changed — 
so improved — by a few simple finishing operations. 

Finishing may be varied in three marked ways. Firstly, 
it may be applied with the idea of making the best of what 
is present in the cloth under treatment without the addition 
of any so-called finishing agents; secondly, it may princi- 
pally consist of adding a finishing agent or " filler " to the 
fabric, the fabric being merely a foundation to hold the 
"filler" together; and thirdly, a combination of the two 
foregoing ideas is possible in which the nature of the fabric 
is suitably fortified with a not undue allowance of some 
suitable " filling " or " weighting " agent. 

In the first class come most wool fabrics, in which the 
nature of the wool is, or should be, fully developed by 
suitable spinning and twisting, suitable weave structure 
and suitable finishing. The perfect wool texture is only 
producible by full deference being paid to all these factors. 
13ut even in the various all-wool goods a marked difference 



THE PBINCIPLES OF FINISHING 217 

is observable. The typical woollen cloth is a cloth made 
in the finishing. The typical worsted cloth is a cloth made 
in the loom. But between these extremes there is every 
grade imaginable, from the worsted- serge or vicuna of worsted 
Avarp and woollen weft, with a pure woollen finish, to the 
typical West of England woollen with almost a worsted finish. 

In the second class come certain cheap calicoes, and of 
late certain cheap silks, holding a very large percentage of 
fiUing. Little exception can be taken to the calicoes. They 
are sold for what they are, and no one is taken in. With 
the silks, however, it is quite otherwise. The goods in question 
are sold as silks, and no reference is made to the percentage 
of filling, which is sometimes truly astounding. Sometimes 
the silk spinner or manufacturer imposes upon himself. For 
example, a silk spinner gives instructions for his yarns to be 
dyed and loaded-up, say, 40 per cent. Now this yarn in 
discharging may lose 30 per cent. ; so that if the spinner 
gets back for every 100 lbs. of grey yarn 140 lbs. of dyed yarn, 
the proportion of filling to silk is— As 70 : 70, or 100 per cent., 
alt|iough it may only be stated at 40 per cent. The ease 
with which silk can be loaded or filled has enabled unscrupulous 
silk merchants to take in an all too trusting public. The 
filling of silk goods has been carried on to such an excess that 
there is now a strong reaction against it. 

In the third class come some few wool goods and a large 
variety of cotton, linen and silk goods. Few wool goods can 
be improved with a filling agent. Meltons and heavy milled 
cloths may perhaps be improved by a stiffening agent in their 
interior, and the necessary weight, but no extra value, may 
be added to worsted coatings by such a weighting agent as 
chloride of zinc. These, however, may be taken to be the 



218 TEXTILES 

exceptions which prove the rule. Most cotton goods are 
improved and rendered more sightly bv either adding filling 
or by smoothing down the size already present in the warp yarn. 
The agents employed in cotton finishing may be classed under 
the heads : — (a) Weighting agents ; (6) stiiiening materials ; 
(c) softening agents ; (d) waterproofing materials ; (e) fire- 
proofing materials. Linen goods specially lend themselves 
to, one might almost say, " showing-ofE " a filling agent 
" starch " — in fact, it is quite questionable whether the goods 
should not be placed in the second class. Some certainly 
should ; others are not abnormally " filled." Silks, being 
frequently woven in the " gum," must be discharged in 
finishing ; but it is probable that the presence of a small 
amount of silk gum in the bath and on the fibre is necessary 
to preserve the best characteristics of the texture under 
treatment. 

Finishing Processes and Machines. — As many processes 
and machines are common to all the recognized fabrics^ such 
may be described generally prior to a particular description of 
the finishing operations necessary for representative fabrics. 

Mending, Knotting and Burling. — ^This consists in repairing 
the broken threads and picks nearly always present in the 
fabric as it leaves the loom. It is also advisable to mend pure 
worsteds after scouring, as the faults are then more easily 
seen. The mending wage for fine worsteds is frequently equal 
to the weaving wage. Knotting and burling are also carried 
out at this stage. 

Scouring. — This consists in thoroughly cleansing the 
fabric prior to proceeding with the finishing proper. 
Certain cotton, cotton and wool, and silk cloths are so clean 
on leaving the loom that the finishing proper is at once 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FINISHING 219 

proceeded with. Many wool goods, however, must be 
scoured fairly clean in what is known as the "dolly" 
or on the five-hole machine, before they will satisfactorily 
take the finish for which they are designed. Again, colours 
running in the scouring may often be scoured out, while 
if left in for the milling they will truly " bleed " and 
permanently stain the neighbouring threads and picks. 

Milling. — This operation is equivalent to hammering or 
squeezing the cloth until it has attained to a sufficient 
solidity. Wool only of all the textile fibres "felts," as it is 
termed, so that this operation is practically limited to wool 
or wool combination goods. 

Two machines are employed to effect the required felting, 
yielding somewhat different results. The milling stocks, 
imitating the original treading action of the human feet, 
hammer the cloth (which is placed in a holder or receptacle 
so shaped that the falling of the hammer not only " mills " 
or " felts " but also turns the cloth round so that its action 
is evenly distributed over all its surface). The action of the 
stocks is obviously of a bursting nature, giving " cover " on 
the fabric. 

The " milling machine " works on the squeezing basis, 
the cloth to be milled being squeezed up in lengths or in 
width or both according to requirements. This machine 
not only gives a more solid cloth, but also enables the miller 
to control the width and length and consequently the 
weight per yard. 

Crabbing. — This is an operation based upon the fixing 
qualities of wet heat as applied to various textures, and upon 
the desirableness of the first shrinking and consequent 
setting of the fabric being very carefully controlled. The 



220 TEXTn.ES 

fabric to be "crabbed" is wound dry and perfectly level 
on to a roller and then under tension wound on to a 
roller running in hot water. From this roller the fabric 
may be run to another roller under similar conditions. 
There are various forms of crabbing machines, but the 
factors are always the same — wet heat and tension and 
weight. 

A very useful but somewhat dangerous machine is used 
for finishing certain cotton warp and wool weft goods, con- 
sisting of four or five rollers running in scouring and 
washing-off liquors, round which the fabric is passed, 
followed by a series of drying rollers, so that the fabric in 
a sense is continuously scoured, crabbed and dried. This 
machine is dangerous in that "crimps " are not eliminated 
as in the case of true crabbing. Of course this machine 
may be employed in conjunction with the crabbing machine 
when the above objection does not hold. 

A special crabbing machine employed in the woollen and 
worsted trade simply arranges for steaming while the fabric 
is being wound on to a true steaming roller upon which the 
fabric may be steamed and cooled off ; or it may be wound 
on to a roller for " boiling " if necessary. 

Steaming. — If the fabric is to be steamed it is run from 
the last crabbing roller on to the steaming roller — a hollow 
roller with a large number of holes pierced from its central 
tube to its periphery — so that steam may be blown right 
through the piece. The piece is usually re-wound the reverse 
way and re-steamed to ensure level treatment. It is then 
allowed to " cool off." The basis of this treatment appears 
to be a " setting " action, owing to the great heat employed, 
no doubt partially dissolving or liquefying certain of the 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FINISHING 221 

constituents of the wool fibre; which re-set on cooling down. 
Prolonged steaming undoubtedly weakens wool fibres. 

Dyeing. — From a mechanical point of view dyeing may 
be conducted on either the "open width" or "rope " method. 
Cotton goods, for example, must be piece dyed on the 
"jigger" full width if level shades are to be obtained, 
while wool goods are usually satisfactorily dyed in rope 
form. There is no satisfactory theory for this, but practi- 
cally, as fact, it is a most important matter. Mercerized cotton 
has such an affinity for dyes that the utmost difficulty is 
experienced in finding a restrainer to effect the even dis- 
tribution of the dye in light shades. Without some restrain- 
ing influence the first few yards might take up the whole 
of the colouring matter. 

Most goods must be opened out after dyeing, as if 
allowed to cool in a creased state they retain their creases. 
The point here to note is that to take out a crease it requires 
a greater heat than the heat at which the crease was put 
into the piece. 

Wasking-off. — This is a simple operation to ensure that 
all the unfixed colouring matters, etc., are cleaned out of 
the piece. As the action is mechanical, cold water may be 
employed. 

Drying. — This is usually effected by passing the fabric 
round a series of steam-heated rollers. Owing to the way 
in which the fabric is wrapped round these rollers it never 
rests for long upon one roller, so that it cannot be burnt ; 
again it is wrapped alternately face and back upon the 
rollers, so that it is really dried in the shortest possible 
time. In goods which may be worked by a straight pull 
on the warp either horizontally or vertically arranged drying 



222 TEXTILES 

rollers are ample ; but if any extension in width is desired 
a tentering machine must be employed. As previously 
explained, these drying rollers are usually arranged in con- 
junction with another operation — say, continuous scouring 
and crabbing. Of late there has been a most marked tendency 
to hot-air dry. 

Tentering and Drying. — This consists in holding the cloth 
tightly in the warp direction and widening it in the weft 
direction. To effect this the cloth is pinned by hand on to 
two continuous tenter chains, which as they carry the cloth 
into the machine gradually increase the distance between 
them, thus tentering out the cloth. The " give " of the cloth 
is probably due to three factors, viz., give in the fabric struc- 
ture, in the thread structure, and in the fibre itself. Obviously, 
unless the cloth is " set " in this position it will more or less 
shrink after the process. To effect the setting the cloth must 
be fed into the machine damp ; in this condition it must be 
widened or straightened out, and then in the widened out 
condition is must be dried. In the most approved tentering 
machines the expanding chains carry the fabric over gas jets 
or steam-heated pipes which just supply the necessary heat 
for drying. A steam- jet pipe is also provided to damp the 
cloth just prior to or during tentering to give it the necessary 
plasticity. In the enclosed " steam-pipe " type of machine 
the efficiency of the machine is often impaired by the difficulty 
of getting away the hot moisture-charged air, but as drying 
largely depends upon this and not so much upon the heat 
developed, this must be done if efficient and economical 
working is to be attained. 

It will be evident that goods " tentering out " will have 
a tendency to shrink. London tailors are credited with 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FINISHING 223 

always testing the natural shrinkage of these goods by folding 
them with a thoroughly wetted and wrung out cloth for a day 
or two, and then noticing the shrinkage which has taken place. 
Goods so treated are spoken of as " London shrunk." Machines 
are specially designed to " London shrink " goods submitted 
to them. 

Brushing and Raising. — After scouring, milling, etc., most 
wool goods and some few others present a very irregular face, 
neither clear nor yet fibrous. If a clear face is desired the few 
fibres on the face must be raised as much as possible in order 
that they may be cropped off in the cropping or cutting 
operation which follows. To effect this the face of the fabric 
is regularly presented to the action of a circular brush or to 
the action of " teazles." 

Should a fibrous face be desired — technically termed a 
" velvet " face — the fabric must be raised wet on what is 
termed the " raising gig " from head to tail, from tail to head, 
and across if possible, to obtain a sufficiently dense fibre, 
naturally somewhat irregular in length. ' 

The " raising gig " proper carries teazles, which without 
damage to the foundation of the fabrics submitted to them 
raise a suflEiciently dense pile. For flannelettes and some other 
goods a stronger machine is required ; in this case wire teeth, 
specially constructed and specially applied, take the place of 
the teazles. This machine is known as the " Moser," and may 
be designed to wrap in the pile which it raises. Teazles 
themselves vary much in raising qualities ; and the experienced 
raiser knows this and takes advantage of it. 

Cropping or Cutting.— To obtain a perfectly level face 
on fabrics they must be submitted to a " cropping " or 
" cutting " operation. Formerly cropping was more or less 



224 TEXTILES 

efficiently done with large shears, but to-day much better 
and more accurate work is done by the circular " cropper," 
which, working on the principle of the lawn-mower, may be 
set to leave a pile of any required length, or if desirable to 
practically leave the fabric bare. The cutting action is due 
to the combined action of the fixed bed over which the cloth 
passes and the spirally arranged revolving blades. 

Singeing. — Some fabrics, such as Alpacas, Mohairs, etc., 
are required to have a clear lustrous face such as no cropping 
machine can possibly leave. Singeing must here be resorted 
to. The fabric to be singed is quickly passed face downwards 
over a semi-circular copper bar heated to almost white heat. 
The speed of the cloth naturally decides to a nicety the amount 
of singeing effected, but to avoid damage to the fabric a quick 
speed is usually adopted and the fabric passed over, say, six 
times. Gas singeing is not extensively applied save in 
genapping, i.e., singeing and clearing braid, etc., yarns. 

Pressing. — By means of the hydraulic press great weight 
may be put on to fabrics, and they may thus be more or 
less permanently consolidated and in some cases lustred. 
Heat may be applied in the press, thus aiding in the fixing 
of the fabrics under treatment. 

Presses are practically made in three forms : ordinary, 
intermittent, and continuous. The ordinary press simply 
receives its charge of cloths in the ordinary cuttled form, 
heat being introduced through the expanding or contracting 
press-plates separating individual pieces. Press papers are 
placed between the cuttles of the pieces to form the surface 
against which the fabric is pressed. In the latest form of 
this press the press papers enclose electrical resistances which, 
upon being connected up, heat the fabric while in the press. 



THE PEINOIPLES OF PINISHTNG 225 

This press has a tendency to elongate the fabric, but a fine 
" ironed " surface may be obtained by its use. 

In the intermittent form about five yards is treated at once, 
suitably pressed and held stationary in the heated machine 
for; say, a minute, and then automatically moved on so that 
the ensuing section of the fabric may be treated in like manner. 

In the continuous form the pressing is continuously effected. 

The time factor naturally varies in all three forms, and is 
naturally the factor which decides which is the most efficient 
machine for particular classes of goods. 

Calendering. — This operation simply consists in passing 
goods through heavily weighted and if desirable heated 
rollers which it is found break or render less " caky " fabrics 
passed through them. The probable action is to distribute 
rigidity or solidity. 

Schreinering. — This operation consists in passing suitably 
constructed cloths between a pair of solid heavily weighted 
steel rollers, one of which has a plain papier-mache surface 
and the other is ruled with extremely fine lines from 190 to 
500 to the inch. The effect on the piece is to develop a 
really wonderful lustre specially applicable to mercerized 
cotton goods. 

Filling. — As already remarked, it may bo desirable or 
necessary to stiffen some goods to increase their utility. 
Again, some goods are " filled " simply to attain a desired 
weight. 

Soap or other agents may be cracked in pieces or the pieces 
may be definitely impregnated with some such agent as 
chloride of zinc. It is hardly necessary to add again that 
filling is rarely legitimate. 

Conditioning. — After fabrics have passed through a process 



226 TEXTILES 

involving the application of dry heat — such as singeing — they 
are unnaturally dry, and as a consequence may be very weak. 
To give back the natural moisture, goods in such a condition 
are passed through a machine which " sprays " them and 
thus causes the fabric to quickly regain the moisture and often 
the strength lost. 

The foregoing are the principal operations in finishing. 
The secondary operation such as hydro-extracting, burl- 
dyeing, extracting, etc., are of such minor importance that 
there is no need to specially refer to them here. 

Waterproofing.— Fahiics, may be rendered waterproof in 
three distinct ways. Firstly, the fibres of which they are 
composed may be rendered moisture-repellent, as, for instance 
when wool is subjected to the action of superheated steam. 
Secondly, the fibres may be charged with a water-repellent 
substance, which thus prevents the passage of water save 
under pressure. Waxed fibres, for instance, possess this 
characteristic. Unfortunately oil is hygroscopic, and rather 
helps the fabric to hold water. In these two cases the surface 
tension of the liquid which endeavours to pass through the 
fabric plays an important part. Thirdly, the fabric may 
be " plastered " or entirely coated with some such agent as 
india-rubber. Aluminium compounds and waxes are also 
most successfully employed. 

All three methods are employed, and there are, of course, 
combinations which are not precisely one or the other. 

Fireproofing. — Cotton and some artificial silk goods are very 
inflammable, and it may also be desirable to render other 
goods less inflammable. The agents employed are such salts 
as upon a rise in temperature melt and cover the material to 
be protected. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF FINISHING 



227 



General Notes. — To give an idea of how the foregoing 
operations are applied in finishing specific types of fabrics 
the six following lists are given : — 



Woollen Cloth. 
(All Wool,) 

Perching. 

Mending, Burling, etc. 

Soaping. 

Scouring. 

Milling (Stocks). 

Milling (Machine). 

Washing-ofE. 

Hydro-extracting. 

Tentering and Drying. 

Brushing and Dewing. 

Raising (if required). 

Cropping. 

Brushing and Steaming. 

Cutting. 

Dewing. 

Pressing. 

Steaming-off. 

Cold Flatting. 

Cuttliag. 



Worsted Cloth. 
(All Wool.) 

Perching. 

Mending, Burling, etc. 

Crabbing. 

Soaping. 

Scouring, 

Mending. 

Light Milling. 

Washing-off. 

Hydro-extracting. 

Tentering and Drying. 

Brushing and Steaming. 

Cropping. 

Brushing. 

Dry Steam Blowing. 

Brushing and Steaming. 

Pressing. 

Steaming-off. 

Cold Flatting. 

Guttling. 



Lining Fabric. 
(Cotton and Wool.) 

Sewing (flat seams). 
Winding on to roller 

prior to Crabbing. 
Rimning on to Crabbing 

Roller. 
Running from Crabbing 

Roller to Steam 

Roller. 
Steaming. 
Drying. 
Singeing (about four 

times). 
Souring (wool). 
Dyeing (wool). 
Dollying. 
Throwing. 

Rolling on to Steaming. 
Roller. 
Steaming. 
Drying. 

Singeing (twice). 
Dollying. 
Hydro-extracting, 
Drying. 
Tentering. 
Press Papering and 

Pressing. 



Silk Fabric.^ 
(Net Silk.) 

Singeing or Cropping. 

Discharging and Wash- 
ing. 

Drying. 

Cylindering. 

Damping, or 

Dressing and Singeing. 

Calendering and Lus- 
tring, 



Cotton Fabric.^ 
(Calico.) 

Singeing. 

Souring. 

Washing. 

Saturating with Caustic 

Soda. 
Kier Boiling. 
Washing. 
Chemicing. 
Washing. 



Linen Fa brig. ^ 

(Standard Style.) 

Lime-boiling, 

Washing, 

Souring, 

Washing. 

1st Lyre boil. 

Washing. 

Chemicing. 

Washing. 

Souring. 



1 These details arc supplied by specialists in the respective branches of 
the industry. All are preceded by operations equivalent to Mending, 
Burling, etc. 

q2 



228 TEXTILES 

Silk Fabeic.i Cotton Fabric^ Linen Fabric. ^ 

(Net Silk.) (Calico.) (Standard Style.) 

Rolling or Plaiting. Souring. Washing. 

Pressing. Washing. 2nd Lyre boil. 

Squeezing. Washing. 

Mangling. Grassing. 

Drying. Chemicing. 

Filling. Washing. 

Drying. Souring. 

Damping. Washing. 

Stretching. Scalding. ^ 

Beetling or Calendering. Washing. ^ 
Making-up. Chemicing." 

Washing. - 

Souring. ^ 

Washing.^ 

Scutching. 

Water-mangling. 

Starching and blueing. 

Beetling. 

Breadthening. 

Calendering. 

Lapping. 

The foregoing lists seem fairly comprehensive, but in 
reality they by no means convey a complete idea of the 
many different styles of finish. For woollen cloths, for 
example, some half-dozen typical and distinct finishes could 
be cited, and the other styles are by no means without their 
varieties (see Fig. 62f). 

There can be no doubt but that more attention to the 
effects of " finish " is much to be desired. To thoroughly 
demonstrate the influence of each specific process the best 
method is to pass a suitable length of fabric through the 
necessary or desirable operations, and to cut off, say, a yard 
length from the fabric after each operation as a reference. 
Thus for a piece-dyed Botany coating reference lengths should 

^ These details are supplied by specialists in the respective branches of 
the industry. All are preceded by operations equivalent to Mending, 
Burling, etc. 

* These processes must be varied in accordance with particular require- 
ments. 



THE PEINCIPLES OF FINISHING 229 

be preserved of (a) warp and weft ; (6) grey cloth ; (c) scoured 
cloth ; (d) milled cloth ; (e) dyed and tentcred cloth ; 
(/) raised cloth; (g) cut cloth; (h) steamed cloth; and 
(i) pressed cloth. The record of all the foregoing reference 
samples should include (1) counts of warp and weft ; 
(2) threads and picks per inch ; (3) length and width ; 
(4) weight ; and (5) strength. 



CHAPTER X 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 



In a general sense most textile calculations have, and 
should have, reference to- the ultimate cloth produced. 
It is true that there is a distinct " wool " trade, a distinct 
"top" trade, and a distinct "yarn" trade, each of which 
is in a sense independent of the cloth trade. It is never- 
theless obvious that all nomenclature, designation and 

indication should be on some basis < — 1" > 

readily understood and easily applied 
by the cloth constructor. 

Unfortunately the " science of cloth 
construction " was developed so late 
that not one but many cumbersome 
methods had long been firmly established, 
so that to-day a considerable portion of 
the designer's and cloth-coster's time is 
wasted on calculations which, with full cognisance of all 
possible conditions, might easily have been eliminated by 
the adoption of convenient standard systems for counts of 
yarn, sets, etc. 

Starting from the cloth it is evident that the most useful 
designation for yarns would be in fractions of the inch (or 
of a decimeter). Thus I's yarn would have a diameter of 
1 inch, 2's of ^ inch, 3's of | inch, 4's of I inch, and so on. 



10* Yarn. S Threads. 



20iYBrnJ0ThreadS;^ 
40*Yani^20rhreadt;^^^ 

Fig. 58.— Illustrat- 
ing the Setting 
of Fabrics ; also 
the Weights of 
Fabrics. 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 231 

or that 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., threads might be laid side by side in 
an inch. The "set" calculations for cloths on this basis 
would be very simple. On this basis, as shown in Fig. 49, 
with plain weave, a lO's yarn would be set five threads per 
inch, a 20's yarn ten threads per inch, and a 40's yarn 
twenty threads per inch. Moreover, on this system, the 
weight of the cloth would vary in inverse proportion 
to the counts, for, as shown, the cloth with 20's count is 
half the thickness or weight of the cloth with the 10' s 
count, the cloth with 40's count is half the weight of the 
cloth with 20's count, and vice versa. If the lO's count 
cloth was a 30 oz. cloth, the 20's count cloth would be a 
15 oz. cloth, and so on. Again, the " sets " or threads per 
inch and picks per inch for any given weave or interlacing 
would be simplicity itself. As shown in Fig. 59, for example, 
the threads and picks per inch would be — 

Counts of yarn X threads in repeat of weave.'^ 
Threads + intersections in rej)eat of weave. 

2 
Thus with a 60's yarn in ^ twill the set should be — 

— - — = 40 threads and picks per inch. 

Of course the practical designer would slightly vary the 
set in accordance with the material he was using ; if rough 
and slackly twisted he would probably put 38 threads per 
inch, while if smooth, compact and hand-twiSted, he might 
put 42 — 44 threads and picks per inch. He would also 
probably take into account the effects of finish, and, of 

1 This is a fairly accurate approximation for ordinary fabrics in 
which warp and weft bend equally. Note that it is only applicable in 
this form if count equals the diameter of the yarn. 



232 



TEXTILES 



m ft; 

«§5 



Fq 






course, the handle of the ultimate texture 
he hoped to produce. 

Unfortunately this simple system is 
quite out of count, firstly, because yarn 
counts designate length and not diameter ; 
and secondly, because yarn and set numbers 
vary in different localities. 

Undoubtedly in the early days of the 
textile industry yarns were spun very 
irregularly and to unknown counts in any 
and every denomination. Then the idea 
of spinning a definite weight of wool, say, 
6 lbs., to a given length of yarn, so that 
a given length of piece could -be got out of 
it, would impress itself upon the more 
thoughtful spinners. Thus the Leeds 
" wartern " is 6 lbs. In Yorkshire " war- 
tern " is derived from a quartern of the old 
24-lb. stone, and if the yarn was spun 
to 1,536 yards, or 1 yard per dram, it was 
called I's count, if to 2 yards per dram, 2's 
count, and so on. In most localities, how- 
ever, the unit of 1 lb. would be naturally 
adopted as the weight. Unfortunately there 
was not the same unanimity with reference 
to the length. To number 1 yard to 1 lb. 
I's count, 2 yards to 1 lb. 2's count, 20 yards 
to 1 lb. 20's count would be out of the ques- 
tion, as a very thick yarn would then have 
256 as its number, and a fine yarn, say, 
2,560 as its number. To reduce this count 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 



233 



number to thinkable and workable proportions, in some cases 
the weight was reduced/ and in others the system of " hank- 
ing " was resorted to. But the localized character of the 
various industries unfortunately resulted in a varying weight 
and a varying number of yards per hank being adopted. In 
most count systems the hanks per lb. (avoirdupois) indicate 
the count. Thus 20's count equals 20 hanks per lb., 30's count 
equals 30 hanks per lb., and so on. But the cotton hank is 

List Xllt. — Various SysTEMS of CouN^I^^G Yarns.^ 
Length variable. Weight constant. 




^ The Yorkshire sj'stem may be said to be based upon the yards per 
drain, and there is also a system based upon yards per ounce, and 
1,000 yards per ounce. 

^ See Bradbury's " Calculations in Yarns and Fabrics." 



23-i 



TEXTILES 



840 yards ;^ the worsted, 560 yards ; the linen, 300 yards; 
Yorkshire woollen skein, 256 yards; West of England, 
420 yards ; and Galashiels, 300 yards for 24 oz. ; so that 
farther complexity has thus been introduced. With the table 
accompanying, however, the yards per lb. in any denomi- 
nation may readily be found, and from the yards per lb. 
any weight or diameter calculation readily worked out. 



List XIIIa. — VAKmus Systems of Counting Yarns.^ 
Length constant. Weight variable. 



System. 


Constant 
Length. 


Unit of 
Weight. 


Count. 


Halifax Eural District 


80 yards 


I ram 


\ 




Jute, Heavy Flaxes 
and Hemp 


Cuts Yds. 

48x300 (Spindle) 


lb. 






Denier System . 
Dram System . 
International Denier . 


Eaw silk (476 
metres or 520 
yards) 
1,000 yards 

500 metres 


Denier 

Dram 

\ deci- 
gramme 


Eepeats of 

I weight in 

; length = 

counts. 


unit 

unit 
the 


Legal Silk count appcl. 
in Paris, 1900 


450 metres 


i deci- 
gramme 






American Grain 


20 yards 


Grain 


/ 





Curious to relate, the V of the yards per lb. of most 
materials (with a suitable allowance of from 5 to 15 per cent.) 

1 No doubt originating from a reel of a convenient circumference, 
with a convenient number of warps upon it. 
" See Bradbury's " Calculations in Yarns and Fabrics." 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 235 

gives the approximate working diameter of any yarn. 
Working backwards diameter ^ = the area of a square, and 
the area of a square varies inversely to length ; therefore the 
diameter varies inversely as the V of the length, and as 
count of yarn is in proportion to length therefore the 
diameter of a yarn varies inversely as the ^ of the counts 
(that is denomination being the same). 

This accounts for the relationship of diameter of yarn 
and length or counts, but not for the \/ of the yards 
per lb. being the actual numerical diameter in fractions 
of an inch. This coincidence suggests that there is 
some method in the madness of the English lb., yard 
and inch, and that they are not merely haphazard 
standards. If the metric count system is adopted the 
V metres per kilogram X 2*4 = the threads per decimeter, 
the decimeter being the most convenient unit to adopt 
for sets. 

The most important systems of counting yarns with length 
constant and weight variable are given in List XIIIa. 

In the foregoing particulars the inch is taken as the 
basis. Unfortunately the inch has been taken as the basis 
in very few manufacturing districts. The reason for this 
is not far to seek. Bradford, for instance, apparently 
based its set particulars upon the yard, Leeds upon the 
^ yard or 9 inches ; Blackburn upon 1| yards ; while 
possibly other districts, owing to French and Flemish 
immigration, based their sets uj)on the Flemish ell or 
French aune — f yards or 27 inches — which later possibly 
being converted into terms of the yard, would create further 
confusion. 

But this is not all. It was evidently found convenient to 



236 TEXTIT.es 

warp with a given number of threads. In Leeds thirty-eight 
(termed a " porty," no doubt a corruption of the w^ord 
" portion ") were employed ; in Bradford forty (termed a 
" beer "), and so on. Thus it became customary for the 
set of a fabric to be defined by the number of times the 
threads warped with repeated in the standard width. Thus 
the Leeds " set " is the " porties '*' per quarter (9 inches), 
the Bradford set the " beers per 36 inches or one yard." So 
little impregnated with scientific method are the textile 
industries even to this day that these very local standards 
are still in full use. Thus the man who speaks of threads 
per inch in Bradford or Leeds mills speaks in an unknown 
tongue, and is not in the least understood. Of course there 
is a tendency to reduce these sets to the threads per inch 
standard. Thus the Bradford man sometimes states the 
Bradford set as being based upon 1^ threads per inch ; 
but even he is an exception and usually there is not the 
slightest endeavour to make the inch the standard ; in fact, 
there is antagonism of a somewhat violent character against 
any change. 

The following are the principal set systems with their 
gauge points for finding the threads per inch (see List XIV., 
p. 237). 

Some of the most difficult calculations and also some of 
the easiest possible calculations which the textile designer 
has to work out have reference to the weight per yard of the 
fabrics with which he deals. In the worsted coating and 
the woollen trade the weight per yard (usually 54 inches X 
36 inches) is the basis of all dealings ; in the stuff, cotton 
and other trades, although often stated, it is by no means 
so important. Now under simple conditions of yarns and 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 



237 



set there is no difficulty in calculating the weight of a piece. 
The calculation simply stands — 

Yards of yarn in piece ^ 

V — J 11 ' , 5 J = lbs. weight of piece, 

Yards per lb. ot yarn employed *= ^ ' 



and 



lbs. of cloth X 16 



= oz. per yard. 



length of cloth in yards 
List XIY. — Yaeious Systems of Indicating the Set. 



Locality and System. 



TBradford 
Leeds . 
Yorkshire A Huddersfield and U.S. A 



Lancashire J 



Dewsbury 
rBolton . 
I Blackburn 



Scotch 



j Manchester 
IStockport 
I Glasgow 
[Tweed . 

Belfast and r^^^^°^^^"^'f «• 
North of \ " ^^"^^'^ 
Ireland I " " 

Silk . " . 



standard 

width 
in inches. 



36 
9 

1 

90 
24J 
45 
36 
2 
37 
37 
40 
30 
37 



Unit 

Number of 

Threads in one 

Beer, Portie, 

etc. 



40 
38 



Given Set to 
find ends 
per inch. 



X Ml 

X4-22 



Splits per inch X ends 
in splits. 



38 

40 

40 

2 

2 

2 

40 

2 

40 

2 



•422 
•64 
•9 
•055 

•054 
X 1-08 
X -05 
X 1-33 
X -054 



Ends per inch X reed width. 
Width of fabric, number of ends 
in each split. 



There are, however, a few complications likely to arise. 
Yarn counts may be in two or more denominations, threads 
of various counts or thicknesses may be twisted together 

. ^ This further extended is : 

Threads per inch X width in loom x yards long of warp 
Warp counts X hanks per lb. 
Picks per inch X width in loom x yards long of cloth 

Weft counts x hanks per lb. "" ^'^^- ^^ ^^°^^' 



238 TEXTILES 

to form part or the whole of either warp or weft, warp and 
weft may be composed of several colours, there may be 
difEerences in shrinkage and losses in weight of warp and weft 
during finishing, and other disturbing influences of a less 
pronounced type. All the foregoing influences, with one 
exception, are either so easy of comprehension or are neces- 
sarily so dependent upon practical conditions that no attempt 
need be made to deal further with them here. The exception 
is the twisting together of yarns of varying thicknesses. For 
instance, what is the " count " of a 40's cotton twisted with 
a 40' s cotton ; a 30's cotton twisted with a 40' s cotton, and 
a 30' s cotton twisted with a 60' s worsted ? 

There are really four methods of working out such problems 
as these. 

Example and 1st Method. — Base the calculation upon a 
yard of each material being twisted together. 

Thus the first calculation will stand — 

1 lb. , 1 lb. 1 f 1 IV. . • -I A 

+ TTTTT^TT. = ^iWoT^ of 1 lb. ; ^.e., 1 yd. = 



40 X 840 "^ 40 X 840 16,800 

^^ of 1 lb. .-. 1 lb. = 16,800 yards = ^11^ =20's 

cotton counts. 
Example and 2nd Method. — Work upon the L. C. M. of the 

number, take this as the length in hanks and proceed as 
before. 

Thus the second calculation will stand — 

L. C. M. of 30 and 40 = 120 hanks as length for com- 
bination. 

— tt; T-^ = hanks per lb. = counts. 

"30+10 



TEXTILE CALCULATIO>s'S 



239 



40 



60 



I Yard 



= 0II42 Drams 
= 0076IDrams 



256 
■01903x560 



= 24 RC. 



■0IS03Drams for 
I Yard of R C. 



lib 



^/3lb 



4-OHanMs of 40 



40 Hanks of 60 



40 Hanks = 

=l^l2lbs 

= 24 Hanks per lb 

'Z4-'^Resultant Count 



eOHanks of 40 



60 Hanks of 60 



fSOHanks 
'J =Z'/2lbs 

= Z4 Hanks per lb 

= 24'^ Resultant Count 




2 Ibi 



120 Hanks of 40 



120 Hanks of 60'^ 



\l20H3nks 

'=3 lbs 
= 24Hanks per lb 
=24'^Resultant Count 



60 lbs 



40 lbs 



2400 Hanks of 4-0' 



2400 Hanks of 60" 



h 



2400 Hanks 
00 lbs 
24 Hanks per lb 
'24'^Resultant Count 



Fig. 60. — Grraphic Illustration of the Resultant Counts of Twisting 
together two Threads of Different Counts. 



240 TEXTILES 

This is better stated as follows— 

Hanks. lbs. 

120 -^ 30 = 4 
120 -^ 40 = 3 



120 weighing 7 = 17 hanks per lb. or 17's counts. 

Example and 3rd Method. — Work by means of the suitable, 
if somewhat large numbers, found by multiplying the two 
count numbers together. 

Thus the third calculation will stand — 

60 X 2 

(60's worsted = — ^ — = 40's cotton), 
o 



80 X 40 = 1,200 hanks. 
1,200 



1,200 1,200 



hanks per lb. = counts. 



80 ' 40 

The second method seems so much more convenient than 
the other two that it is most desirable to adopt it whenever 
possible. Its convenience is all the more marked when the 
prices of the yarns are given and the price per lb, of 
the resultant count is required; and again when three or 
more yarns are to be folded together. Such calculations 
are so simple in the light of the foregoing that it is not 
considered necessary to treat them further here (see graphic 
illustrations, Fig. 60). 

The changing of the weights of cloths presents one or two 
features which are somewhat curious and should be specially 
noted. For instance, to make cloths lighter — (a) Warp 
may be kept the same, and a thinner weft or fewer picks per 
inch of the same weft may be inserted ; or if the cloth is 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 241 

built on the square (h) the whole structure of the cloth 
may be changed and more threads and picks per inch may 
be inserted of a finer yarn. The explanation of this 
seemingly contradictory method is that to make a cloth 
lighter it must be made thinner (supposing that in the first 
place it is perfectly constructed), and to make it thinner 
a smaller diameter of yarn must be employed ; and with 
a smaller diameter of yarn more threads per inch, in 
exact proportion to the decreased diameter of the yarn, 
must be inserted to maintain the balance of structure. 
Thus the cloth is lighter because more threads and picks 
per inch indirectly imply a thinner cloth. Similarly, to 
make a cloth heavier fewer threads and picks must be 
inserted (see Fig. 58, p. 230). 

But these statements and facts are put in terms of the 
diameters of the yarns. To make it practical then — 
remembering that \/ counts is in proportion to the 
diameter — the rule will be — change the V counts of yarns 
inversely in proportion to the required change in weight, and 
change the threads per inch inversely in proportion to the 
required weight change. An example will well illustrate this — 

Exami:)le. — A cloth is woven of 2/32's cotton, set 60 
threads and picks per inch and is required \ heavier. 

^ to become | ; proportion = as 4 : 5. 

As 5 : 4 : : -v/ IG : Va; and x = 10'24 counts of say 

2/20's. 

As 5 : 4, or 

As a/ IG : V 10"24 : : go : x = as threads and picks 
per inch. 
T. r» 



242 TEXTILES 

Proof 60 X 36 X 1 X 5 48 x 36 x 1 

16 X 840 X 4 = 10-24 X 840 * 

Another calculation of this type involves a change in 
weave as well as weight, but as no new principle is involved 
we refrain from giving it. The varieties of the foregoing 
calculations are unlimited, but practically all the principles 
involved have been touched upon ; a little common sense 
and mathematical instinct will lead to a speedy solution of 
any and all. 

The simplification of practical conditions to ensure speedy 
work has claim to passing comment. 

Example. — A dress cloth when finished contains 88 ends 
per inch, and 80 picks per inch, is 63 yards long, 48 inches 
wide, and weighs 14 ounces per yard. It has shrunk 10 
per cent, in length, 12 per cent, in width, and lost ^th of 
its original weight. Ascertain the threads and picks per 
inch in the loom, length of warp and width of piece as in 
the loom, weight of material in the grey, and the finished 
and grey counts of yarn employed. 

Warp Finished. Warp in Loom. 

? Counts of yarn (worsted). ? Counts of yarn. 

88 ends per incti. ? Ends per inch. 

Wefi Finished. Weft in Looii. 

? Counts of yarn. ? Counts of yarn. 

80 picks per inch. ? Picks per inch. 

Length of warp finished 63 yds. Length of warp in loom, ? 

Width of piece finished, 48 ins. Width of piece in loom, ? 

Weight per yd. finished, 11 oz. Weight per yd. in loom,. ? 
^ loss of original weight. 

To clearly state the problem like this is almost to 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 243 

answer it. For example, the ounces per yard in the loom 
stands — 

14 oz. + ^ of the original weight = 14 oz. + J = 
16'33 oz. = per yard in loom. 
Again : 

As 168 (88 + 80 ends and picks per inch) : 83 :: lA : x 

, , 88 X48 X 1 X IG ^,. _, 

= 7'3 oz. of warp, and ^-^^ ^-^ = lO'o s 

count (if worsted). 

Should the manufacturer be engaged in the Continental or 
South American trade it may be very desirable that he 
should work in the Metric System. All the foregoing 
principles may be readily applied in the Metric System 
by conversion, or, better still, directly by means of the 
following particulars : — 

Worsted counts -f- '885 = Metric counts. 

Metric counts X '885 = Worsted counts. 

Cotton counts -^ '59 = Metric counts. 

Metric counts X -59 = Cotton counts. 

Yorkshire skeins -=- 1'939 = Metric counts. 

Metric counts x 1*939 = Yorkshire skeins. 

In dram silk 515 -^ counts = Metric counts. 

515 -f- Metric counts = Dram silk counts. 

Threads or picks per inch X 39 = threads or picks per 
decimeter. 

Threads or picks per decimeter -r- 3"9 = threads or picks 
per inch. 

Bradford set X 4'33 = threads per decimeter. 

Threads per decimeter -r- 4*33 = Bradford set. 

r2 



244 TEXTILES 

Eule to find the threads per decimeter {i.e., fraction of a 
decimeter occupied) for any metric counts of yarn : 



\/Metres per kilogram X 2'3 for woollen yarns. ^ 
,, ,, „ X 2*4 for worsted yarns. 

„ ,, „ X 2*5 for cotton yarns. 

Rule to find the threads per decimeter for any ordinary 
weave : 

Diameter of yarn in decimeters X Tliread in repeat of weave 
Threads + Intersections in weave. 
= Threads per decimeter. 

Examjih : — Find the threads per decimeter for 2/18's 

2 
cross-bred yarn employing ^ twill. 

Jd X 1,000 X 2-4 = 233 and 

233 X 4 

Pi = 155 threads per decimeter. 

b 

Spinning and "Weaving Calculations. — In preparing, comb- 
ing, and spinning, calculations referring to both the 
machines employed and the materials passing through these 
machines frequently occur. .The mechanical calculations 
involved cannot be entered into here. Nearly all spinning 
calculations involve the principle of drivers and driven, and 
most weaving calculations involve the principles of leverage, 
but the application of these simple principles are so varied 
that no satisfactory treatment of them could be given in 
the space at our disposal.^ 

The calculations referring to weights of slivers in drawing 

* The slight differences here are allowances for the relative bulki- 
ness of the materials of which the respective yarns are composed. 

2 Seethe "Wool Year Book," "Woollen and Worsted Spinning," 
etc. 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 243 

and spinning, however, should at least claim passing com- 
ment. The ultimate end of spinning is, as we have seen, 
to produce a strand or thread of a certain count, i.e., of a 
certain number of yards per pound (this is the simplest 
denomination). Now, working backwards one would expect 
the slivers always to be stated and calculated in yards per 
lb., and if it were so there would be many simplifica- 
tions of drawing and spinning calculations. But in practice 
it is found more convenient to reel for fairly fine slivers 40 
or 80 yards, and for thick slivers 10 yards. Thus English 
tops are placed on the market 7 ozs. per 10 yards. Botany 
tops are placed on the market 4 to 5 ozs. per 10 yards. 
An English top (say 40's quality) is usually made up in a 
ball about 230 yards long and weighing about 10 lbs. A 
Botany top (say 60' s quality) is usually made up in a ball 
about 144 yards long, weighing about 5 lbs. Irrespective 
of these perhaps unnecessary difficulties drafting calcula- 
tions are comparatively simple, as a sliver loses in weight 
exactly in proportion to its extension or draft, and neces- 
sarily increases in weight in proportion to the doublings. 
Thus if 40 yards of a " top " weigh 240 drams, then with 
drafts 5, 6, 8, 8, 6, 9, 9 and doublings 6, 6, 4, 4, 3, 3, 2, 
40 yards roving will weigh 

240X6X6X4X4X3X3X2 „, , , 

-: = 24 drams.^ 

5X6X8X8X6X9X9 ^ 

In calculating the drafts necessary to give a total draft 
a difficulty may occur owing to drafts multipling themselves. 
Consequently if, say, a total draft of 10,368 is required in 
seven operations, then logarithms or the slide rule must be 

1 See Buckley's " Worsted Overlookers' Hand-book," and " Woollen 
and Worsted Spinning," by Barker. 



246 



TEXTILES 



resorted to, the y of the total draft being the average 
draft which may now be varied sHghtly to suit particular 
operations. Thus a top weighing 280 drams per 40 yards 
has to be reduced to 7 drams per 40 yards, at seven 
operations, the doubling being 6, 6, 4, 4, 3, 3, 2. 

280 



7 = 


40 and log. of 40 = 


1-6021 




log. of 6 = 


0-778 




,, „ 6 = 


0-778 




„ „ 4.= 


0-602 




„ „ .4 = 


0-602 




5> 55 3 := 


0-477 




„ „ 3 = 


0-477 




„ „ 2 = 


0-301 




7)5-617 



•802, log. of. 
Answer, = 6-3 draft required. 
Calculations such as these are comparatively simple, but 
the problem of deciding drafts and doublings is much more 
complex, requiring experience and sound judgment. The 
following are approximations which may prove useful :— 
For twistless French drawings : 

Drafts 10 to 12 units 

average fibre length.^ 
Doublings == draft — x (a. small quantity). 
For twisted English drawings : 

24 to 30 units 



Draft 
Doublings 



average fibre length. ^ 

draft — X {a, small quantity). 



1 Log of draft required if there were no doublings. 

2 As decided by the Schlumberger Top Testing Machine, 
metres or inches may be taken as units. 



Centi- 



TEXTILE CALCULATIONS 247 

For v:oollen yarns : 
When F = average fibre length, and 

K = quality constant, then skeins any material will 
spin to = (i^ X 20)K. 



For 28's 


quality K = -i For 56"s 


quality 


K = 


•9 


„ 32's 


„ Z = -5 „ 60's 


35 


K=^ 


1-0 


„ 36's 


„ ^=-6 „ 64's 


J> 


K = 


M 


„ 40's 


,, K=-7 „ 70's 


55 


K = 


1-2 


„ 50's 


„ ^=-8 








Draft which any material will stand : 










^ + f 









Drafting twist : 

1 , 

In which L = longest fibre in condensed sliver, 

k a constant determined by the frictional coefficient of the 
fibres being spun. 

It will be evident from the foregoing that many most 
interesting calculations occur in the textile industries. 
The points involved in these calculations are ordinary 
mathematical, geometrical, and trigometrical principles, 
and special principles and variations involved by the con- 
ditions obtaining in the industry. Many of the calculations 
could be materially shortened by the adoption of either the 
standard inch and pound or the metre and the gramme. 

The chief point which stands out, however, is the need 
for some universally intelligible system. If we in this 
country are not prepared to adopt our own standard of the 
inch and yard and the pound of 16 ozs., we must be prepared 
for the metric agitators to prevail — our weakness will be 
their strength. 



CHAPTER Xr 

THE WOOLLEN INDUSTRY 

The Wool Industry may be divided into four main classes,^ 
viz., the Woollen Industry, the Worsted Industry, the 
Stuff or Dress Goods and Lining Industry, and the Up- 
holstery or Tapestry Industry. Each of these has several 
subdivisions : thus the woollen industry may be considered 
to include the felt industry, the blanket industry, and in 
part the hosiery trade ; the worsted industry includes also 
a section of the hosiery trade, and in part the braid trade ; 
while the stuff or dress goods and lining industry includes 
many varieties almost attaining to distinct classes. The 
fourth class includes all pile fabrics of an upholstery type, 
and carpets and tapestry fabrics of a complex character. 

The word " woollen " originally referred to fabrics made 
of the best Continental wool spun on the spindle-draft 
system, simply woven, felted, and often highly finished. 
The old " doeskin " was a typical example of the woollen 
cloth, and the care and skill required for its production may 
be gauged by the fact that this cloth frequently took six weeks 
to finish, and sold up to 305. a yard broad width. The present- 
day army officers' cloths may also be taken as typical of 
what was understood by the term woollen " in the olden 
days." It also seems probable that cotton cloths made 
from yarn spun upon the spindle-draft system and woven 

^ The hosiery or knitting industry is not considered here. 



THE WOOLLEN INDUSTRY 249 

into more or less soft fabrics were sold as woollens. About 
the year 1813 the re-manufactured materials made their 
appearance, and very quickly " catching on " became in- 
corporated into the woollen trade, so that to-day the legal 
definition of a woollen yarn may be taken as — a yarn 
composed of fibres of any class of materials which may be 
said to possess two ends, which just possesses the strength 
necessary to allow the shuttle to lay it in the shed. To-day 
woollen cloths partake too much of these last named 
characteristics. Verily our grandfathers would have wept 
aloud could they have foreseen the degradation which was to 
overtake their trade and calling. For they were proud of 
their goods and of their good name for honest dealing. It 
must not be supposed, however, that the introduction of 
the re-manufactured materials is entirely a retrograde step. 
It is surprising what sound goods the Dewsbury and Batley 
manufacturers can make from low-class raw materials, and 
it must not be forgotten that thousands of the poorer classes 
are well clothed by this means who otherwise would have 
to go very meanly clad indeed. It is the passing of re- 
manufactured materials as pure wool which must be 
condemned. 

The better class woollen trade is located in the West of 
England, Huddersfield, Scotland, and Ireland. In the latter 
country it is not concentrated, but rather distributed. 

The medium class woollen trade is largely located in the 
Leeds district with branches westward into the dales of 
Yorkshire. 

The heavy woollen trade is located in the Dewsbury, 
Batley, and Colne Valley district. The Continental woollen 
trade is very dispersed. In France, Elbeuf and certain 



260 TEXTILES 

small to\vns like Sedan in the north are the principal 
centres. In Germany M.-Gladbach, Cottbus, Eorst and 
Werdau are the main centres for cheap goods for men's 
wear. Verviers, in Belgium, is the centre of a large 
woollen spinning district, the yarns produced being 
shipped to England by the ton. In the north of Italy and 
in Spain woollen and worsted manufacture is developing, 
while Austria has a textile industry all too little known 
and appreciated in this country. 

The woollen centre in the United States of America is in 
the New England States, Philadelphia and Boston being the 
chief cities involved. 

The supplies of material for these branches of the woollen 
trade are derived as follows : — For the fine trade Australian, 
Cape, South American, and Continental fine wools and some 
few fine cross-breds and English wools are employed ; for the 
medium trade coarser Australian, New Zealand, etc., cross- 
breds with slipe and skin wool, noils, etc. ; and for the heavy 
trade shoddy, extract, mungo,^etc., scribbled with cotton 
sweepings, etc., to hold the blend together, are largely em- 
ployed. 

The woollen firm is usually self-contained, i.e., it takes 
in the raw material and delivers the finished cloth, and also 
often merchants it. There are a few spinners of woollen yarn 
who do not weave and finish, and the " Rag Grinders " or 
" Mungo and Shoddy Dealers " of Dewsbury, Batley, and 
Ossett, form a distinct class to themselves ; but these are 
the exception, not the rule. Thus a woollen mill will, as a 
rule, include the following machines or sets of machines :— 
Scouring Machines. 
Drying Machines. 

1 These waste materials average from 200,000,000 to 300,000,000 lbs. 
per annum. 



THE WOOLLEN INDUSTRY 251 



Willows 



\ Placed in the Blending-room. 
Fearnaugnts J 

Conveyors from Blending-room to the Cards. 

_ , _ , 1 Forming sets of machines to prepare 

Intermediates I „ . , . • t, 

j tor a given number ot spindles. 
Condensers J 

Mules — pitch and number of spindles to follow cards. 

Eing Twisters, 

Warping, Dressing, Sizing and Drying Mills, and 
Machines. 

Looms to follow the spinning. 

Soaping Machines. 

Dollies. 

Hydro-Extractor. 

Milling Machines. 

Stocks. 

Crabbing Machines. 

Steam-Blowing Machines. 

Tentering Machines. 

Eaising and Brushing Machines. 

Cropping Machines. 

Presses. 
Few mills possess complete sets of scouring bowls — say 
four or five bowls to the set— as the materials they employ 
are of such a varied character and comparatively so small 
in bulk that it pays better to buy bulk lots scoured and to 
keep a single machine for dealing with the greasy lots. For 
the same reason the space over the boilers is usually plated 
as a drying house, although of course the best firms employ 
drying machines of an approved type, which yield the wool 
up in a nicely open and dried condition. 



252 TEXTILES 

The willow is a very rough strong kind of card, which 
practically tears up and dusts the material, a fan and 
chimney being connected with it. The fearnaught is a 
nearer approach to the card, still more finely working the 
wool and ejecting it as a rule by means of an air blast. 

Materials to be blended together are first passed through 
these machines, then built into a stack, layer by layer, and 
oiled at the same time, then beaten down with sticks^ and 
again passed through the fearnaught. The blend is then 
allowed to mellow before being passed on to the carding- 
room. The scribbler card to which the material is subjected 
opens it out lightly, the intermediate card treats it more 
severely, while the condensing card ensures a regular film 
of wool and then divides this film up into a number — say 
120 films in 72 inches — -of small slivers — count according 
to count to be ultimately spun to — which are wound on to 
the condensing bobbin ready for being passed on to the 
mule. On the mule these condensed slivers are at one 
operation drafted out to the counts required and twisted, or, 
if this would be too severe, they are first roved and then 
finally spun to the required counts. The following parti- 
culars respecting the relationships of the cards and mule 
spindles are useful and interesting (see p. 253)- 

The operation following spinning and twisting is warping 

if the yarn is intended for warp. If the yarn is intended 

for weft it will have been spun directly on to spools fitting 

the power-loom shuttles ; if for warp, on to cops holding a 

large quantity, and, if possible, a definite length of yarn to 

avoid waste in " bits." Warping is best effected on the 

Scotch warping mill, although the cheese system has by no 

means fallen into disuse. Upon whatever system the warp 

^ Care must be taken that neither air blasts nor sticks sort out long 
material from short ; perfect mixing being the desideratum. 



THE WOOLLEN INDUSTEY 2o3 

Sets of Woollen Machinery for — 

Coarse Work. Fine Work. 

Scouring. Scouring. 

Drying Drying 

(Carbonizing). (Carbonizing). 

1 Willow. 1 Willow. 

X Fearnaught. 1 Fearnaught. 

Blending Process : — Blending Process : — 

1 treble scribbler — breast and 3 1 double scribbler— breast and 2 

swift, Scotch intermediate feed. swifts. 

1 double carding engine — breast 1 intermediate — breast and 1 swift, 

and 2 swifts, double - doffer creel intermediate feed, 

condenser. 1 double carding engine — breast 

1 mule of 400 spindles. and 2 swifts, tape condenser. 

1 ring - twisting frame of 100 2 mules, 600 spindles each, 

spindles. 1 ring - twisting frame of 200 

spindles. 

(Yielding, say, 60 lbs. per hour.) (Yielding, say, 40 lbs. per hour.) 

is made a regular tension should be placed upon all the 
threads ; if of a coloured pattern, they must be in their 
correct order ; the right length should be accurately 
obtained, and the correct width for dressing on to the loom 
beam. Sizing follows, the idea here being to add a certain 
amount of strength to the yarn and to glue down the strong 
fibres and so ensure clear weaving conditions. Drawing-in 
or twisting follow, and then the warp is mounted in the 
loom. The favourite loom among woollen manufacturers 
now is the Dobcross, running at from 80 to 105 picks per 
minute. Several other firms also make woollen looms of 
an approved description. It is here interesting to note that 
in the woollen loom speed does not necessarily mean pro- 
duction, for woollen warps are frequently so tender that 
running at 80 picks per minute produces more cloth than 
running at 105 picks per minute. Of course for the cotton 
warps largely used in the low woollen and flannel trades 



254 TEXTILES 

much quicker looms may be employed, 110 to 120 picks 
per minute being frequently attained. 

As the woollen fabric leaves the loom it is unsightly, 
rough, and uncouth. But finishing changes all this. 
Scouring clears ofi the size and oil, and, if skilfully done, also 
clears and develops the colours. Milling bursts the thread and 
gives a full-looking texture ; tentering levels the piece, 
taking out all creases ; crabbing fixes and gives lustre to the 
piece ; raising brings a pile on to the surface ; cropping levels 
it ; steaming fixes ; and wet-raising, boiling, etc., give a 
finely-developed permanent lustre. 

The following example illustrates how all the processes 
in woollen manufacture must be applied with a definite 
idea of attaining a particular type of finished fabric : — A 
Melton cloth is required in which the finished fabric shows 
little or no trace of threadiness, but is of a felt-like appear- 
ance. To begin with, a good, fairly short, felting wool is 
required ; this should be worked with as little drafting as 
possible, i.e., condensed fine and spun without roving. 
The warp and weft yarns should be spun with inverse 
amounts of twist-in and in the same direction, say, 
open-band. The twill of the weave, should a twill be 
employed, should run with the twine of the yarn, so that 
warp and weft " bed " into one another as much as possible. 
The fabric must not be too closely set, as the fibres must be 
given room to take a " finish." The thread structure must 
be cleared in the scouring, broken in the stocks, and consoli- 
dated in the milling machine. The surface fibres must be 
raised up by dry-raising and closely cropped off to leave a 
bare clear surface without pile. Should stiffening be 
necessary, this may be effected by washing off the soaped 



THE WOOLLEN INDUSTRY 



255 



Cotton 





Wool 

or 
Mungo 












Wool or Mungo Stack 

with Oil added 




Fig. 61.— Grapliic Illustration of the Order of Processes in Woollen 
Manufacture. 



256 TEXTILES 

piece with hard water or by adding the necessary stiffening 
agents. Needless to say, the better piece will be that 
which requires no stiffening agent. Should the fabric 
come out of the press too highly glazed, it should be re- 
steamed to give it the requisite clear but somewhat opaque 
Melton finish. 

Every distinct style of woollen fabric requires special 
attention in the finishing, as it is the finishing operations 
which make or mar the piece. A worsted cloth is largely 
made in the loom, but a woollen cloth is really made in the 
finishing. 

Woollen manufacturers largely merchant their own goods, 
as distinct from the stuff manufacturers, for example, who 
cater for the wholesale merchant houses. This is perhaps 
due to the fact that the woollen trade is largely a home 
trade, the manufacturing of woollen cloths — no doubt 
owing to its comparative simplicity — being spread over the 
world. Japan, for instance, already spins, weaves, and 
finishes woollens, but buys largely worsted tops and yarns. 

In Fig. 61 the relationships of the various processes in 
woollen manufacturing, one to the other, are shown. 



CHAPTER XTl 

THE WORSTED INDUSTRY 

The worsted industry may be said to have risen with the 
growth and introduction of colonial wools into England. 
It may be true that its very name carries us back to an 
industry located in the village of Worsted, in Norfolk, but 
it is more than probable that did we enquire into this primitive 
industry we should find that it was principally based upon 
the production of fabrics which here will be treated under the 
heading of " Stuffs." ^ For our present purpose, however, 
it will be convenient to include in this chapter all combed wool 
yarns and fabrics made entirely of such yarns, along with 
possibly a few exceptions of the fabrics made of, say, worsted 
warp and woollen weft. If this is the division adopted, then 
it is necessary to point out that there are really two distinct 
branches of the industry — with, of course, many grades in 
between. Long wools (mostly English) have been combed 
and made into what are still known to our women-folk as 
worsted yarns from time immemorial. St. Blaize, a bishop 
of the fourth century, was the patron saint of the wool-combers, 
and for how long the industry had been established before his 
time it is difficult to say. We are fairly safe in assuming that 
prior to about 1830 worsted or combed yarns were made from 

1 See Chapter XIII. 
T. a 



258 TEXTILES 

long wool of a somewhat coarse and harsh character, and that 
the modern " Botany yarn " was almost unknown. Prior to 
1830 fine Continental wools would no doubt be placed on 
the market as hosiery yarns, but they would be spun on the 
woollen principle, and were no doubt synonymous with what 
are to-day termed " merino " yarns. From 1830 onwards 
the longer colonial merino wools were combed by hand, 
and about 1840 Lister (Lord Masham) first attempted the 
combing of short English wools (Southdown), and later of 
colonial wools, by mechanical means. Prior to this, attempts 
had been made to comb wool mechanically, but inventors 
were more concerned with the production of any mechanism 
which would comb wool, so that we are fairly safe in assuming 
that the combing attempted was with long wool. Curious 
to relate, Lister soon abandoned his attempt to comb short 
wool, becoming more interested in his " nip " comb, which was 
more suited to the long varieties of wool, leaving the field 
clear for the Holdens so far as this country was concerned, 
and Heilmann and the Holdens so far as the Continent was 
concerned. Thus, from 1850 onwards there has been a steady 
advance in the capabilities of the machine comb, until to-day 
the Heilmann and Noble combs will comb wools of, say, 
2 inches, which even a few years ago would have been put on 
one side as being only suitable for clothing purposes. The 
genesis of the wool comb is illustrated graphically in List I. 
Every stage therein forms a romance of industry. 

It was about the year 1879 that the fine woollen trade 
was "hit" by the introduction of fine wool " worsteds." 
Woollen manufacturers, who a few years previously had 
reckoned their j)rofits in thousands or tens of thousands, 
either had to change on to the new style of machinery or 



THE WOESTED INDUSTRY 259 

had to close down. The fine black cloth — the standard 
clothing of the middle and upper classes — became almost 
a thing of the past. Thus it came about that the worsted 
industry, instead of being almost wholly concerned in the 
rougher sorts of wools, became more and more concerned 
in the finer wools, so that to-day it is impossible to say 
whether the prepared, combed, and drawn long wool yarns 
or the carded, combed, and drawn short wool yarns form 
the bulk of the trade. But during the past ten years, 
again owing to the large supply of a suitable medium wool 
— neither long nor short — what is known as the cross-bred 
trade has arisen. Cross-bred wools are usually carded, 
combed, and drawn, but the yarns produced cannot be com- 
pared to Botany yarns for softness and delicacy. To-day, 
owing to the tendency to produce a big carcass sheep, these 
wools form the bulk sorts of New Zealand and the coastal 
districts of Australia and South America, and the yarn and 
cloth trade in these wools is proportionately large. 

The worsted " top and yarn " trade is located in Bradford 
and district, but some few and not unimportant firms are 
outside this district. Worsted yarns of the fine, cross-bred 
and long wool type are woven, dyed, and finished in various 
parts of the country, each district, as it were, making a 
speciality of a certain style. Thus Huddersfield leads the 
world in the finest worsteds for men's wear ; Bradford and 
Halifax are pre-eminent for the cheap production of plain 
style worsteds for both men's and women's wear ; and 
Scotland now consumes large quantities of cross-bred and 
Botany yarns, which are made into Scotch tweeds and other 
fancy worsted styles, mostly for men's wear. The corre- 
sponding Continental centres are Elbeuf and Aachen. Of 

s2 



260 TEXTILES 

course, the correspondence is not exact. .Thus, while 
Elberfeld makes linings similar to Bradford, no combing 
and spinning of moment is to be found there, and so on. 
Philadelphia, Boston and Jamestown are the corresponding 
United States centres. 

The worsted trade, as distinct from the woollen ti-ade, is 
organized into several distinct divisions. It is true that in 
certain parts of the country there are firms who buy wool 
direct, or at the London sales, scour, comb, spin, weave, 
and finish it. But these firms are the exceptions, the trade 
as a whole being organized as follows : — 

1. The Wool Buyers. — This branch of the trade originally 
bought tlie wool from up and down the country or in 
London and resold it to the combers. Of late years, how- 
ever, there has been a tendency to combine this trade with 
the combing. 

2. The Comhers. — This branch takes the raw material, 
scours it, prepares or cards, combs it, and places it on the 
market in the " top " form. 

3. The Spinners. — This branch deals with the "tops" as 
delivered from the combers, converting them by means of 
drawing and spinning processes into yarns. 

4. The Warpers and Sizers. — This branch deals with the 
warping and sizing of the spinning yarns prior to weaving. 
Thus, warpers and sizers frequently keep standard qualities 
of their spinners' j^arns, and warp, size, and dress on to the 
manufacturers' loom beam to order. 

5. The Manufacturers. — This branch weaves into the 
required fabrics the yarns, etc., supplied by the spinner or 
the warper and sizer. 

6. The Dyers and Finishers.— This branch, now largely 



TIIE WOSSTED INDUSTRY 



261 



g 



The Wool Growing Industry 
Europe. Australasia, South America. Cape Colony, East Indies, &c. 



Wool Sales 
London, Antwerp, Liverpool, Sydne_y, Buenos Ayres, PrivateTreaty, Sc. 



Woollen industry. 
I 



Washing. 

Cardinq. 
Spinning. 

Weavin9. 
Finishing. 

lVle''cln anting. 



Worsted Industry. 
I ^ 



Combing Industry. 



English Mohain i 
Alpaca etc. \ 



Cross Bred. ' Botany. 



Eng lish 

IViohai r, 

Alpaca etc. 



Spinning Industry 



Cross Bred. 
Gre^.Coloured. 



I Botany. 

I Grey, Coloured. 



Coatings. 



Weaving | 
Dress \ 
Goods. ! 



Industry. 
Linings. 



Fa ncles 
Etc. 



Dyeing & Finishing, 

Worsted , DressGoods 'Woollens. 
Coatings ' & Linings. \ 



Merchanting. 

j Foreign Trade. 
Home Trade. ' Continental. 
I U.S.Aetc. 



Fig. 62a. — Grapliic Illustration of Woollen and "Worsted Industries. 



Raw Wool 



I 



Preparing 
Boxes 



I 










2 










3 










^ 










5 










I, 
•t; 

10 

•4: 
,2 

13 











Strong 
Boxes 



Punch 




Finisher 
Boxes 



Fig. 62b. - Giaphic Illustration of Combing Processes for Long Wool. 



THE WORSTED INDUSTRY 263 

organized as a combination under the title of the Bradford 
Dyers' Association,^ scours, dyes, and finishes the immense 
variety of goods forwarded to its various branch works, 
each of these latter being specialized to deal with particular 
styles of goods. 

7. The Merchants. — The large wholesale houses in 
Bradford at one time almost controlled— and certainly 
developed — the Bradford trade. To-day there is mani 
fested a tendency for manufacturing concerns to merchant 
their own goods, but notwithstanding this the merchant- 
ing trade of Bradford is in a very healthy condition. 

There are several minor branches of the trade in addition 
to the foregoing main divisions. Thus there are comb- 
makers, spindle-makers, loom-makers, and the designers 
and card-cutters. 



Sets of Machines from Wool to the Yarn. 

Botany. English. 

1 Willow. 1 Willow. 

1 Four or Five-bowl Scouring 1 Three or four-bowl Scouring 

Set. Set. 

10 Cards. 1 Dryer. 

2 Backwasliers. 1 Set of six Preparing-boxes. 
2 Sets of two Strong boxes. G Nip Combs. 

1 Punch. 3 Sets of two finishers. 

8 Noble Combs. (Backwashing to be added if 

5 Sets of two finishers. required.) 

About six Sets of English 
Drawing will be required to 
follow this. 

^ A few not unimportant dyeing and finishing firms are not in this 
combine. 



iei TEXTILES 

Botany (contd.). 
Top Dyeing Plant. Be-comhing Plant. 

2 Twenty-eight Can Top Dye- 2 Winders. 

Machines. 3 Sets of two Breaking -up 

1 Backwasher. Boxes. 

2 Mixing Boxes. 1 Punch. 

4 Noble Combs. 

2 Sets of two finishers. 

Drawing Plant. 
3 Sets of Botany Drawing Machinery, and 
1 Set of French Drawing Machinery. 

It is not possible to give details of all the machinery 
employed in the industry, but the above indicated sets 
of machinery for English cross-bred and Botany yarn pro- 
duction, in conjunction with the information given in 
previous chapters on preparing, spinning, etc., will enable 
a comprehensive grasp of the subject to be obtained. 

In the worsted and woollen industries the type of work 
is so miscellaneous that weaving machinery is rarely supplied 
in sets. In the cotton industry, however, sets are most 
carefully calculated for specific types of fabrics. 

Worsted looms may be run much quicker than woollen 
looms, an additional speed of at least 20 per cent, often 
being possible. As a rule, a greater shedding or boxing, or 
both shedding and boxing, capacity, is required in the 
worsted loom as compared with the woollen loom, as 
worsted goods are made in the loom, and not in the 
finishing, as are woollen goods. Extreme fancy woollens, 
however, are as difficult and complex in the making as 
fancy worsteds. 

The fabrics produced in the worsted trade may usually 
be classed under the heading of Botanies, Cross-breds, or 
English. The plainer styles in all quaUties are woven in 



^HE WOESTED INDUSTEY 265 

2 3 4 

2' 3' 4 ^wi^ls ^^^ other standard weaves. For 

women's wear, when fashion is favourable, large numbers of 
jacquard figured styles are produced, while for men's wear 
backed and double cloths and very complex schemes of 
interlacing and colouring are regularly to be met with. 
Special note should be made of the colouring, as the 
organization of the Botany coloured yarn trade of Bradford 
and Huddersfield is unequalled elsewhere in the world, 
unless it be in the Lyons silk trade. 

The finishing of worsted goods has been defined in the 
chapter on " Finishing." Note should be made, however, 
of the fact that there are to-day many " worsted finishes." 
Time was when worsted coatings invariably wore " greasy." 
Such is not the case to-day— at least, not if the finisher 
has done his work well. Again, worsteds may be produced- 
soft or crisp at will by maintaining satisfactory conditions. 
Thus, just as in the case of the woollen cloth, the final 
product is decided by the primary selection of the raw 
material, by the way in which that material is prepared 
and spun, by the way in which the fabric is constructed 
and woven, and finally by the finishing. It is not one but 
all these factors which must be considered carefully if 
characteristic worsted cloths are to be produced. 

The merchanting branch of the trade may be con- 
veniently divided into the " home trade" and the " shipping 
trade." Owing to this division and to the variety of textiles 
produced, it is questionable whether Bradford should be 
considered a city of one trade. It is further questionable 
whether the total trade fluctuation is greater than in a city 
of recognized diversified trades, such as is Leeds. 




Fig. 02c.— Graphic [llustration of the Combing Processes for Short 'Wool.— 1 and 2, wools 
to be treated ; 3, blend of wools (1) and (2) ; 4, 5, 6 and 7, wasliing bowls ; S, dryer (not 
always used) ; 9, carder ; 10, backwasher ; 11 and 12, strong boxes ; 13, punch for 
balling slivers for comb ; 14, Noble comb ; 15, 1st finisher ; 16, 2nd finisher. Note.— The 
balance of machines is not here preserved ; thus one set of scouring would keen 
perhaps twelve combs running (see p. 233). 




I I I 

a: to ^ 

;; ^ « 






FlG. 62d. — Graphic Illustration of the Drawing and Spinning 
Processes on the French, English, Merino (Open), and Merino 
(Cone) Systems. 



268 



TEXTILES 



The following tables, taken from the Bradford Chamber of 
Commerce's " Statistics of the Worsted and Woollen Trades," 
convey useful information respecting the " top," yarn, cloth, 
and dress-stufE trades. 



List XIV. — Exports of Wool- Waste, Noils, and Tops. 



Year. 


Total. 




lbs. 


£ 


1908 


55,203,200 


3,532,153 


1909 


66,695,400 


4,342,835 


1910 


71,269,200 


5,170,397 


1911 


67,658,400 


4,766,852 


1912 


76,553,000 


5,352,811 


1913 


77,519,300 


5,831,569 


1914 


61,775,800 


4,865,884 


1915 


35,598,000 


3,365,435 


1916 


43,838,400 


5,178,949 


1917 


32,201,900 


4,765,070 


1918 


23,376,700 


4,634,705 


1919 


34,420,500 


7,163,617 



List XV. — Exports of Combed or Carded Wool and Tops. 





1913. 1 1914. 1 


191 


5. 


1916. 




Quantities. 


Value. Quantities. 


Value. 


Quantities. 


Value. 


Quantities. 


Value. 


To:— 


lbs. 


£ 


lbs. 


£ 


lbs. 


£ 


lbs. 


£ 


Riissiii . 


1,176,300 


103,903 


1,045,200 


92,782 


261,800 


34,385 


182,500 


29,740 


Sweden . 


5,333,000 


435,954 


4,128,800 


349,276 


986,700 


101,551 


2,086,700 


257,484 


Norway . 


585,400 


44,400 


460,000 


37,002 


321,200 


34,523 


550,200 


66,696 


Denmark 


469,700 


34,130 


449,400 


33,642 


463,000 


50,601 


489,600 


59,142 


Germany 


16,234,600 


1,260,308 11,426,000 


894,114 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Holland 


3,571,500 


272,504 


2,916,300 


225,893 


1,363,900 


126,818 


1,920,400 


211,354 


Belgium . 


2,378,400 


176,102 


1,876,700 


140,685 


— 


— 


— 


— 


li'rance . 


1,108,100 


95,039 


604,800 


54,474 


3,559,400 


465,115 


7,861,200 


1,413,556 


Portugal 


273,100 


28,058 


269,800 


28,761 


414,400 


53,162 


161,300 


22,406 


Spain 


933,000 


84,593 


649,600 


61,913 


345,900 


35,070 


78,400 


11,552 


Italy . 


2,046,100 


162,527 


1,.509,200 


124,531 


2,066,700 


236,141 


3,949,700 


530,883 


Austria- 


















Hungary 


610,000 


47,879 


223,100 


16,838 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Japan 


5,147,000 


618,262 3,708,100 


451,948 


854,300 


113,114 


278,200 


46,849 


other 
















Countries 


687,900 


62,594 5,519,700 


498,280 


1,707,200 


135,098 


567,500 


56,882 


Canada . 


3,078,100 


225,546 2,008,300 


150,625 


3,834,100 


398,252 


4,330,900 


530,322 


other 


















British 


















Posses- 


















sions 


— 


— 


45,300 


3,072 


22,300 


2,320 


98,000 


16,647 


lOTAL 


43,633,100 


3,651,799 36,840,300 


3,163,836 


16,200,900 


1,786,150 


i2, 554, 600 


3,253,513 



THE WOESTED INDUSTRY 



269 



List XV, — Exports of Combed or Carded Wool and 
Tops — continued. 





1917. 


1918. 


1919. 




Quantities. 


Value. 


Quantities. 


Value. 


Quantities. 


Value. 




lbs. ■ 


£ 


lbs. 


£ 


lbs. 


£ 


To:— 














Kiissia . 


257,900 


37,642 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Sweden 


21,200 


2,763 


— 


— 


1,849,800 


285,785 


Norway 


128,.500 


18,280 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Denmark 


1.58,100 


21,573 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Germany 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Holland 


278,800 


37,610 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Belgium 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


France 


4,136,000 


975,.588 


2,f3.5,300 


879,582 


— 


— 


Portugal 


.56,700 


10,538 


10,200 


2,000 




— 


Spain . 


92,600 


14,080 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Italy . 


5,262,.500 


889,706 


6.768,400 


1,343,006 


— 


— 


Austria- 














Hungary 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Japan . 


1,000 


232 


— 


— 


10,400 


3,804 


Other Foreigi 


1 












Countrie 


148,900 


23,789 


6,100 


1,085 


— 


— 


Canada 


3,789,800 


590,224 


5,434,900 


1,003,,500 


— 


— 


Other British 














Possessions 


41,800 


6,131 


5,700 


898 


— 


— 


Total 


14,373,800 


2,628,156 


15,060,600 


3,230,971 


14,866,000 


3,220,298 



List XVL — Woollen and Worsted Yarns. 





Imp 


orts. 


Exports. 














Weight in lbs. 


Value in £. 


Weight in lbs. 


Value in £■, 


1909 


23,985,703 


2,441,018 


81,315,600 


7,177,825 


1910 


27,546,472 


2,795,574 


94,253,900 


9,046.394 


1911 


27,497,777 


2,852,308 


91,081,100 


8,919,688 


1912 


30,586,909 


3,171,657 


87,888,900 


8,225,567 


1913 


32,993,997 


3,532,656 


80,415,300 


8,040,415 


1914 


18,588,525 


2,065,610 


53,413,400 


5,541,967 


1915 


653,811 


81,849 


21,724,200 


3,189,966 


1916 


428,010 


60,765 


33,090,700 


6,444,240 


1917 


113,649 


18,486 


23,752,300 


5,660,326 


1918 


15,036 


3,268 


16,377,900 


6,392,365 


1919 


2,826,705 


1,036,504 


32,230,100 


12,964.205 



270 TEXTILES 

List XVII. — Manufactures of Wool. 





Imports. 


Exports. 1 










Value in £. 


Value in £. 


1909 


6,148,004 


34,768,443 


1910 


5,653,321 


42,659,823 


1911 


5,637,583 


42,652,968 


1912 


5,802,692 


43,819,362 


1913 


5,772,801 


44,241,611 


1914 


4,506,852 


37,127,548 


1915 


1,333,622 


37,267,139 


1916 


495,039 


52,356,399 


1917 


39,191 


58,292,401 


1918 


111,406 


54,593,161 



' In this column flocks, shoddy, wools, and waste are 
included. 



List XVIII. — Imports of Wool Dress-stuffs, Flannels 
AND Delaines. 





1913. 


1914. 


1915. 


1916. 




Quantities. 


Values. 


Quantities. 


Values. 


Quantities. Values. 

1 


Quantities. 


Values. 




Yards. 


£ 


Yards. 


£ 


Yards. 


£ 


Yards. 


£ 


From : — 


















France 


43,037,990 


3,492,979 


35,234,824 


3,014,586 


1,914,635 


168,325 


712,820 


77,358 


Germany . 


13,370,424 


1,063,733 


7,897,002 


677,734 


4,558 


553 


3,800 


355 


Holland 


202,420 


23,097 


217,220 


21,331 


371,-380 


37,029 


12,563 


2,067 


Belgium 


1,029,198 


103,886 


911,491 


91,709 


126,991 


10,264 


— 


— 


Switzerland 


1,287,351 


64,476 


824,082 


49,553 


1,879,211 


117,078 


475,495 


31,855 


Austria- 


















Hungary . 
Other 
Countries 


113,077 


10,016 


50,905 


5,528 


— 


— 


— 


— 


46,403 


2,845 


46,947 


5,184 


1,019,908 


79,182 


894,086 


52,722 


Less Re- 
exports . 


59,086,863 


4,761,032 


45,182,561 


3,855,625 


5,316,683 


412,231 


2,098,764 


164,357 


7,831,673 


592,535 


7,995,019 


622,639 


1,217,588 


98,960 


1,116,715 


93,050 


Net Imports 


51,255,190 


4,168,497 


37,187,542 


3,232,986 


4,099,095 


313,471 


982,049 


71,307 



THE WORSTED INDUSTRY 



271 



List XVllI. — Imports of Wool Dress-stuffs, Flannels, 
Delaines —continued. 





1917. 


1918. 


1919. 




Quantities. 


Values. 


Quantities. 


"Values. 


Quantities. 


Values. 


From : — 
France 
Germany . 
Holland . 
Belgium . 
Switzerland 
Austria-Hungary 
Other Countries . 


Yards. 
318,323 

32,095 


£ 

31,466 

Japan 
2,116 


Yards. 
242,922 

260,927 
1,346 


£ 
27,088 

21,914 
167 


Yards. 
1,043,652 


£ 
270,493 


Less Re-exports 


3.50,418 
201,475 


33,582 
26,457 


505,195 
22,136 


49,169 
3,821 


1,645,642 
93,008 


317,574 
25,092 


Is'et Imports 


148,943 


7,125 


472,959 


45,348 


1,.552,634 


292,482 



List XIX. — Imports of Wool Cloths. 





1913. 


1914. 


1915. 


1916. 




Quantities. 


Values. 


Quantities. 


Values. 


Quantities. 


Values. 


Quantities. 


Values. 


From : — 

Germany 

Holland 

Belgium 

France 

Austria- 
Hungary 

Other 

Countries . 


Yards. 

1,092,312 
480,709 
366,577 
672,856 

17,372 

147,552 


£ 

164,035 
59,180 
70,058 

123,405 

2,898 
19,661 


Y''ards. 

1,136,990 
969,658 
195,759 
558,994 

I 852,779 


£ 

165,767 

103,401 

34,074 

106,284 

129,616 


Yards. 

1,460,255 

4,000 

70,669 

865,171 


£ 

134,968 

.500 

12,012 

134,680 


Yards. 

78,067 
104,-534 

166,224 


£ 

8,129 
19,819 

25,024 


Less Re- 
exports . 


2,777,378 
280,369 


439,237 
54,643 


3,714,180 
494,394 


539,142 

81,742 


2,400,095 
167,411 


282,160 
30,423 


348,825 
61,158 


52,972 
12,601 


Net Imports 


2,497,009 


384,594 


3,219,786 


457,400 


2,232,684 


251,737 


287,667 


40,371 



272 TEXTILES 

List XIX. — Imports of Wool GhOTRS^continued. 





1917. 


1918. 


1919. 




Quantities. 


Values. 


Quantities. 


Values. 


Quantities. 


Values. 


From : — 
German V . 
Holland . 
Belgium 
France 

Austria-Hungary 
Other Countries . 


Yards. 
3,640 

103,704 
19,377 


£ 

889 

28,878 
5,683 


Yards. 

71,330 
342 


£ 

30,567 

88 


Yards. 


£ 


Less Re-exports 


126,721 
14,213 


35,450 
4,562 


71,672 
4,113 


30,655 
2,037 


225,662 
20,478 


105,668 
17,274 


Net Imports 


112,508 


30,888 


67,5.59 


28,618 


205,184 


88,39 J 



CHAPTEE XIII 

THE DRESS GOODS, STUFF, AND LININGS INDUSTRY 

It is probable that from the earliest days dress goods 
and fabrics generally destined for women's wear have been 
very diversified in material, texture, and design. Tapestries 
might be more elaborate in design and richer in texture, 
but certainly not so varied in style. It is probable that for 
centuries wool textures have occupied a leading position for 
women's ordinary wear. Coarse woollens of the " winsey " 
type were no doubt manufactured in bulk for the lower 
classes ; somewhat finer fabrics of the serge type would be 
the bulk sorts for the better classes along with cashmeres ; 
while the upper classes would more largely patronize silks. 
Linen was of course largely used as an under-wear, and it 
is more than probable that, prior to the introduction of the 
cotton frock, linen fabrics would be used for a similar 
purpose. Our Eastern trade, dating from the seventeenth 
century resulted in the introduction of fine cotton goods 
in the shape of muslins, etc.; but it was quite late in 
the day before we were able to manufacture these and 
produce somewhat similar styles in wool under the name 
of " mousseline-de-laine." It is thus quite easy to under- 
stand how the Dress Goods trade of to-day has come 
to be so comprehensive in its employment of nearly 



274 TEXTILES 

every textile fibre and every possible combination of the 
same. 

Prior to about 1837 all wool (woollen or worsted), all silk, 
all linen, and some few wool, silk, and linen combinations, 
were the standard styles. With the introduction of cotton 
warps about this time and the extended use of cotton about 
1856 the possibilities of the combination of various materials 
was more fully realized, resulting in what is known as the 
" Stuff Trade." Thus cashmere cloths,' which, prior to this 
period, had been made from wool warp and wool weft, were 
made with cotton warp and wool weft ; the Italian cloth, 
again a cotton warp and wool weft style, was introduced or 
re-developed ; the use of mohair in conjunction with cotton 
was exploited, resulting in the discovery of a whole range of 
fabrics variously spoken of as Sicilians, Brilliantines, Orleans, 
etc. ; and a little later Sir Titus Salt placed his far-famed 
Alpaca styles upon the market. Thirty years later, and the 
mercerizing of cotton again upset the commercial equilibrium 
of Bradford. Mercerized goods in a pure form have partially 
taken the place of the ordinary botany weft Italian, and in their 
varieties in the shape of lustred (Schreinered) goods and 
blistered or crepon styles have made a lasting impression upon 
the fancy dress goods trade. 

Largely owing to being first in the field, and to very successful 
spinning, Bradford has well maintained its lead in such 
dress goods as involve the employment of English wools, 
mohair, alpaca, etc., these being termed hard goods as distinct 
from the soft Botany styles. With these latter styles the 
French always seem to have been the most successful, simply 
because of the style of combing and spinning adopted, 
Bradford early adopted the Danforth spindle or cap frame, 



DRESS GOODS, STUFF, AND LININGS INDUSTRY 275 





Yarn 






Ware 










mrt 




















win ding 


Single 
Yar 


'.■iarp 

IS 












VJarping 




Warping, Sizing 
d Dressing. 




























1 








Dra^ng in 
lS<eylng 


























We a ving 



Fig. 62e. — Warping, Sizing, Dressing, etc., Processes. 



a spinning machine admirably adapted for the production 
of sad, solid Botany yarns ^ typically suited to the Italian 

^ Roughness must not be mistaken for fulness. The cap frame can 
only be considered to spin a " full" yarn in comparison with the flyer 
frame. 

t2 



276 TEXTILES 

and worsted coating trades. France placed its faith in the 
mule, and by the time of the Great Exhibition in 1851 had 
already made a name for soft mule- spun fabrics. From that 
time to the present, notwithstanding both public and private 
endeavours, France has well held her own. True it is that 
when fashion favoured the hard stuffs of Bradford, Eoubaix 
seriously discussed the possibihty and advisability of 
adopting Bradford's method of spinning; but upon the 
whole they have lost nothing by keeping to the mule. 
Within the last two years Yorkshire has again seriously 
considered the advisability of producing more mule-spun 
yarns, the Chamber of Commerce taking a strong lead in 
the deliberations held, and several firms have now suc- 
cessfully overcome the difficulties, both practical and 
economical, and are placing on the market mule-spun 
worsted yarns as satisfactory and as cheap as the French 
yarns. In such goods as Amazons these mule- spun yarns 
are employed as warp with a woollen yarn as weft. This 
woollen yarn, of which tons are used in Yorkshire and 
Scotland alone, is spun in Belgium and France, no English 
firm having yet been successful in its economical pro- 
duction. With the success that has attended the attempts 
to produce mule-spun worsted yarns still markedly in 
evidence, it will be a strange thing if Bradford does not 
seriously attempt and succeed in producing this most 
important woollen yarn. 

The Dress Goods, Stuff, and Lining trade is almost wholly 
located in Bradford and district. In mohairs Bradford still 
has a practical monopoly, although the piece trade is 
threatened by the export of " tops " and " yarns " to Conti- 
nental centres and the United States. In all hard stuffs 

^ Or evea prior to this, as Arthur Young, in his " Travels ia 
France prior to 1794," refers to France's supremacy in these goods. 



DEESS GOODS, STUFF, AND LININGS INDUSTEY 277 

Bradford still leads, although both the United States and 
the Continental centres are gradually becoming proficient 
in the manipulation of English and cross-bred wools of the 
long type. Roubaix is the great rival of Bradford, in France, 
and Gera-Greiz, Tittan, Barmen, Elberfeld, Meerane, and 
Grlauchau in Germany. In the United States the mills were 
so much engaged in the production of bulk sorts in the home- 
grown wools that little endeavour was made to produce 
European fine styles until quite recently. To-day the mills 
of Passaic are producing fine dress goods second to none. 

The supplies of raw materials are derived as follows : — 
Oldham and Bolton supply the cotton warps, usually spun 
from best Egyptian or Sea Island cotton, but sometimes from 
American ; Asia Minor, the Cape, California, and to a small 
extent Australia, supply mohair ; South America supplies 
alpaca, vicuna, and llama wool ; India supplies cashmere and 
other wools ; England, New Zealand, and South America 
supply long and cross-bred wool ; and Australia, the Cape, 
and South America supply the fine Botany wools required. ^ 
Spun silks are now manufactured in Bradford and, close to, 
at Brighouse, the raw material largely coming from Asia and 
the latest from the Congo State ; while the net silks required 
are obtained from Macclesfield, the Continent, or China and 
Japan. 

The organization of spinning has been dealt with under 
the heading of the Worsted Industry. So many and varied 
are the materials and counts of yarn used by the dress 

1 Canadian merino wool is just beginning to appear in Bradford. 
In the TJ. S. A. some most useful " domestic "or " territory" wools 
are now grown. 



278 TEXTILES 

goods manufacturer that it would be an economic impossi- 
bility for him to spin the yarns he requires ; he must buy 
on the open market. 

Cotton warps are delivered in Bradford in the " ball " or 
"chain" form, and are dressed in the factories on to the 
loom beam.^ Mule-spun and delicate wool warps are sized 
and run directly on to the loom beam by the warpers and 
sizers, who supply the yarn at a definite price per pound on 
the loom beam. If it were possible to hank-dye and wind 
1-40's cap-spun yarn without undue waste, Bradford would 
soon develop a coloured dress goods trade. As it is France 
still retains by far the greater part of this lucrative section of 
the industry, as Bradford is largely limited to piece-dyeing. 

The dress goods manufacturer restricts his energies to 
the warping and dressing of his yarns and the weaving of 
the same. His looms may be plain looms, box looms 
(frequently boxes at one end only), dobby looms or 
jacquard looms. As the trade is very liable to violent 
fluctuations from figured styles to plain styles, most fancy 
manufacturers make arrangements to sling their jacquards 
up and employ their looms as tappet or dobby looms as 
occasion demands. The looms used are largely made in the 
West Riding of Yorkshire. The number of looms in a shed 
will vary from 50 to 500 or even 1,000 with the accompany- 
ing warping, dressing, twisting, weft- room, and grey-room 
arrangements. The .organization is comparatively simple 
as compared with a combing and spinning mill. 

Some so-called manufacturers have no looms at all, 
getting their goods woven by " commission weavers." 

' There is now a tendency for the spinner to deliver warp yarns 
ready dressed onto the looni beam. 



DEESS GOODS, STUFF, AND LININGS INDUSTEY 279 



DRESS GOODS 

[perching I 



SCOTCH 
TWEEDS 




I BRUSHING I 

AND 

I steXming I 



Mh 



CUTTING 
1 



BLOWING 
I 



BRUSHING 

A HO 

steaming 



PRESSING 
1 



\measuring\ 

— r 



FOLDING 
I 



CLEAR FINISH . 
WORS TED COA TINGS 

I perching] 



MENDING 
I 




STEAMING 
I 



RIGGING 

AND 
FOLDING 



STEAMING 
I 



RIGGING 

AND 
FOLDING 



LIGHT 
PRESSING 



Fig. 6'2f.— Graphic Illustrations of Dress Goods, Scotch Tweeds, and 
Worsted Coatings Finishing Processes. 



280 TEXTILES 

These firms are usually very limited in their turnover, 
although it is but fair to add that there have been some 
remarkable exceptions. 

When figured goods are in fashion the designers and 
card-cutters form a very important section of the trade. 
The larger firms keep their own designing staff and card- 
cutters, but the smaller firms usually employ one of the 
independent public designing and card-cutting firms, who 
supply sketches to select from, point paper designs, and 
cut cards at a comparatively small price. 

The styles of fabrics produced range from plain cloths to 
elaborate figures. The following particulars respecting 
(1) a plain lustre fabric ; (2) a figured lustre fabric ; (3) an 
•all-wool Botany dress serge (cap-spun); (4) an Amazon or 
soft dress fabric ; and (5) a Botany Italian, will give a good 
idea of the variety of texture to be met with in this trade. 

1. Plain Lustre Fabric : 

Warj). Weft. 

All 2/80's Egyj)tian or Sea All 1/1 2's Grey Mohair or Lustre 

Island Black cotton. English. 

40' s reed I's = 40 threads per 46 picks per inch, 
inch. 

Cross-dyed black, lustre finish. 



Fi(jured Lustre Fabric : Ground weave plain. 

Warp. Weft. 

All 2/100's bleached Egyptian or All 1/32's White Mohair. 

Sea Island cotton. 72 to 76 picks per inch. 

32's reed 2's or 64's reed I's = 

64 threads per inch. 

Finished "White. 



DEESS GOODS, STUFF, AND LININGS INDUSTRY 281 

3. All- Wool Serge: Weave 2/2 Tivill. 

Warp. ^Yeff. 

All 2/56's Cap-Spun Botanj-. All l/SO's Botany. 

16's reed 4's = 64 threads per 64 picks per inch, 
inch. 

Dyed any shade required, and given ordinary serge finish. 

4. Amazon: Weave: reverse 5 Sateen Warp Face. 

^^""^P- Weft. 

All 2/o6's Cap-Spun Botany, All 40 Skein Woollen, 

or 1/30's Mule-Spun Botany. 36 to 40 picks per inch. 

24's reed 3's = 72 threads per 
inch. 

Dyed any shade required, and given a Venetian or Doeskin finish. 

5. Italian : Weave : 5 Sateen Weft Face. 

Warp. jjr^yf^ 

All 2/oO's Black Cotton. AH 1/60's Botany (grey). 

20's reed 4's. 1:>0 picks per inch. 

Dyed black, and given a solid lustrous Italian finish. 

The finishing of dress fabrics, etc., is almost wholly in 
the hands of the Bradford Dyers' Association, although, as 
previously remarked, there are a few not altogether un- 
important firms outside the combine. If the combine has 
maintained prices at a high standard, it is but fair to add 
that they have made most marked advances in the methods 
of dealing with the large variety of goods continually 
pouring into their works, and, in addition, have introduced 
some new finishes of surpassing excellence. The Association 
is now actually indicating to spinners and manufacturers 
the selection of raw materials and spinning and weaving 
necessary to produce specific finished styles. 

As- in the case of the worsted coating industry, there are 
two marked divisions of the dress goods trade— the home 



282 TEXTILES 

section and the export or shipping section. Again, some 
firms merchant their own goods, and others work in con- 
junction with the large merchant houses. Unfortunately, 
Bradford trade terms are not standardized as are Manchester 
terms, so that conditions of sale and purchase vary con- 
siderably — sometimes for the good of the industry, but 
upon the whole, to the detriment of the industry. 

The recent development of Bradford's trade in mercerized 
goods is worthy of more than passing comment. When, 
between 1890 and 1900, Bradford first took up this trade 
it was supposed that it would ultimately drift into Lancashire. 
Although this has partly occurred, Bradford has considerably 
more than held its own, and to-day is making large quantities 
of these goods for both the home market and for export. Of 
course this trade has cut at the spun silk and in part at the 
Italian industry, but upon the whole the gain has been much 
greater than the loss. 

Artificial silk manufacturing also seems to have largely 
centred in Yorkshire, to-day large quantities of these goods 
being produced, more particularly in the Bradford district. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE TAPESTRY AND CARPET INDUSTRY 

The tapestry and carpet industries are frequently but 
not always allied. It is but natural that we should be able 
to trace the arts of tapestry and carpet Mjeaving more 
definitely and perhaps farther back than the art of weaving 
ordinary fabrics, which, being simpler, did not claim 
the attention that the production of elaborate tent drapings 
claimed in the early days of the human race. As already 
pointed out, it was but natural that elaborate figure 
weaving should early develop in the family period of the 
industry, and that elaborate styles of an artistic character, 
unsurpassed even in these days, were to be met with not 
only in the eastern but also on the outskirts of the western 
Roman Empire. The Normans, for example, controlling the 
labour of England, built cathedrals and churches ; in Sicily 
they not only caused churches to be built, but most 
elaborate and inspirited tapestries to be woven. 

The draw-boy loom was introduced into England from the 
East during the Middle Ages, and it was no doubt already 
largely employed on the Continent. This mechanism 
certainly facilitated the production of large repeating pat- 
terns to a very considerable extent. Early in the nine- 
teenth century Jacquard, with some more or less important 
improvements on the machines of his predecessors 



284 TEXTILES 

and contemporaries, produced what is known as the 
Jacquard loom, and about 1830 this machine was success- 
fully combined with the power-loom and made almost 
as complete a success as the ordinary plain power-loom. 
So little was the success of the Jacquard power-loom 
known outside the Bradford district, however, that the 
writer well remembers in the year 1884 or 1885 a 
supposed authority in the trade questioning whether it 
ever could be a success as a power-loom, i.e., twenty or 
thirty years after it was running by the hundred, or 
perhaps thousand, in the Bradford district. To-day the 
tapestry loom is a magnificently harmonised combination 
of Jacquard, dobby or tappets, box motion, letting-off 
and taking-up motion, and is employed upon the simplest 
kinds of tapestries, consisting of little more than reversed 
warp and weft sateens, up to imitations of the Gobelin 
tapestries. In Fig. 63 a standard tapestry structure is 
illustrated. 

The carpet trade may be divided into three branches, 
viz., double-structure or Kidder or Scotch carpets, tufted 
carpets, and true pile carpets. Double-structure carpets, 
no doubt, had their origin in stoutly woven fabrics to be 
employed as floor coverings, probably in the first instance 
for the ladies' apartments of the old baronial castles in 
the place of rushes, etc. To make a stouter and better- 
wearing carpet would naturally lead to the weaving of 
two cloths together, and from this would come the idea 
of figuring by an interchange of the two cloths — back to 
face and face to back — the colourings of back and face 
fabrics being designed to give the utmost value to this 
change (see Fig. 64). A special form of the Jacquard loom 



































































































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Design. 
Cutting Particulars 
Cut eachpick Four times 

1. Cut alt but ■ 

2. Cut all but H 

3. Cut all but ^ 

4. Cut all but □ 



Boxing Particulars 
Pick ■ Colour 
Pick Colour 
Pick 13 Colour 
Pick □ Colour 





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Cutting & Pegging Plan. 

Fig. 63.— Simple Tapestrj' Structure and Design, 



28G 



TEXTILES 



to facilitate the figuring of these goods was also a natural 
outcome. 

Tufted carpets undoubtedly came to us from the East 
in the first case, Turkey carpets being probably known 
long before any attempts were made to produce such 
fabrics in western Europe. Largely owing to the definite 
endeavours of French statesmen — Colbert, for example — 
tufted fabrics were made in France during the sixteenth 
century, and from that date to this the noted Gobelin 
factory has been turning out most elaborate examples of 
these fabrics, in many cases reproducing with a most 




Fig. 64. — Scotch Carpet Structure. 

wonderful exactitude the paintings of the most celebrated 
French artists. A more practical, if somewhat less artistic, 
hand-loom woven style of tufted carpet was developed 
during the seventeenth century, and owing to James L, 
in the seventeenth century, introducing this industry 
from Flanders into Axminster, in Devonshire, these carpets 
have become known as Axminster carpets. Briefly, they 
consist of a firm canvas back or foundation cloth — woven 
at the same time as the tufts are introduced — into which, 
row by row, tufts of the colours necessary to produce the 
pattern are firmly latched in by hand, and cut to the right 
length. Thus the only limit to this type of design is the 



THE TAPESTEY AND CAEPET INDUSTEY 



287 



number of tufts which it is possible to insert across and 
lengthwise of the carpet. As these tufts are now introduced 
mechanically from bobbins held on bars mechanically presented 
across the " fell " of the piece, and as the number of bars from 
a practical point of view must be limited, so is the form design 
limited in both warp and weft direction (see Fig. 65). Theire 
is, however, no colour limitation save such as economy imposes. 
The Axminster power-] oom was in 'ented by Mr. Alexander 
Smith and Mr. Halcyon Skinner in the United States of America 
about the year 1856, but it took some twenty years to establish 
itself in this country. Many modifications of Axminster 




Fig. 65. — Axminster Carpet Structure. 

carpets are now placed upon the market. In the most 
important of these the tufts of colour required in one line 
across the ultimate carpet are first woven into a gauze thread 
to form a " chenille " yarn, as many of these variously coloured 
tufted threads being woven and cut as is necessary to produce 
■che pattern in the carpet, line by line. These are then most 
exactly woven along with the ground texture of the carpet, 
the loom throwing in, say, three ground picks, then the 
coloured chenille pick, and then stopping until the weaver 
has placed this in " register " to continue exactly the pattern 
already produced by the previous coloured chenille picks. 
Then the weaver touches a pedal and the loom again repeats 



288 TEXTILES 

its four picks and stops. There are many varieties of these 
carpets, but such is the basis of structure and production of 
all. 

How long wire pile carpets — now called Brussels, Wilton 
and Tapestry carpets — have been in vogue is difficult to 
estimate. As the name " Brussels " indicates, the industry 
originally came to us from Flanders, probably being intro- 
duced into Wilton in the year 1770, the development of 
this industry, as in the case of many other industries, being 
due in part to the definite interference and endeavours of 
certain of our sovereigns, and in part to the Continental 
religious persecutions, which drove skilled fugitives to our 
shores. Once here, it naturally spread, Glasgow, for 
example, probably receiving its carpet industry from Bristol 
by sea, just as Glasgow, in the early part of the nineteenth 
century, came across the Cashmere shawl from its shipping 
connection with the East, and evolved it as the " Paisley 
shawl." Of course, the first pile carpets were hand-woven, 
but in 1844 to 1850 the United States of America, always 
on the look-out for labour-saving contrivances, brought 
out the wire-loom (Bigelow's), in which every motion, from 
the shedding to the insertion of the wire, was controlled 
mechanically. Messrs. Crossley, of Halifax, soon took up 
this mechanism, and upon it built up a colossal concern. 
They were later followed by others, who applied the 
mechanism in a variety of ways. The three varieties of 
this structure are formed as follows : — The true looped 
Brussels is formed by looping wires and distinct coloured 
threads (or " frames ") for every colour in each row length- 
wise of the carpet (see Fig. 66). These coloured threads 
are lifted over the wires by the Jacquard {i.e., lifted as 



THE TAPESTRY AND CARPET INDUSTRY 



289 



required for the insertion of the wires) to form the required 
pattern. The Wilton carpet is but a cut " Brussels " with 
certain slight modifications — for example, a slightly modified 
ground structure and a longer pile. The tapestry carpet is 
produced from but one pile warp, this warp having the required 
pattern printed on it in an elongated form, so that when 
the take-up in weaving is effected by the wireing the right 
proportions for the true development of the design will 
result. As would be expected, the pattern is not so clearly 



Q 



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Fig. 66. — Three-frame Brussels Carpet Structure. 

defined as in the Brussels or Wilton carpets, and as it does 
not contain so much material — having only one pile warp 
in place of several — it is not so elastic and consequently 
does not wear so well. The greatest defect of the Brussels 
and tapestry carpets is the tendency to " sprout," i.e., to 
have long lengths of pile pulled out of them by a nail in a 
shoe, etc. This, of course, cannot occur with Axminster or 
Wilton carpets ; hence their advantage. Well-woven 
Brussels carpets, however, should never develop this defect 
with fair usage. An interesting fact about Brussels, etc., 
carpets is that if they are not woven in squares they are 
T U 



290 TEXTILES 

usually woven in widths of about twenty-seven inches, i.e., 
the old Flemish ell and French aune. 

The tapestry industry is dispersed over the country, 
being located principally in Halifax, Glasgow, Bradford, 
Carlisle, and also being instituted as a " home industry " 
in Ireland and England on very successful lines. On 
the Continent the centres are Paris, Eoubaix, Berlin, 
Chemnitz, Crefeld and Vienna. In the United States, 
New York. 

The carpet industry is largely located at Halifax, 
Glasgow, and Kidderminster in this country. 

The materials consumed are silk (both net and spun), 
wool (chiefly English), mohair, hemp, jute, cotton and 
China grass. 

The mill organization is naturally very elaborate and 
expensive. Messrs. John Crossley & Sons, of Halifax, for 
example, have premises extending over many acres and 
employ 5,000 work-people. They produce Brussels, tapestry 
and Axminster carpets. The firm of Messrs. James 
Morton & Co., of Carlisle, is remarkable chiefly because it 
has organized an elaborate Irish home industry for the 
production of many articles yet unproducible mechanically. 
There are some large carpet firms in the United States, and 
even Canada possesses a most progressive carpet manufacturing 
concern. 

The methods of production, etc., so closely resemble the 
methods employed in the dress goods and stuffs industries 
that httle further need be added. The designing room is, 
of course, pre-eminently important. The art of tapestry 
carpet designing, for example, is that of using the limitations 
of structure and colour as bases for design. Again, the 



THE TAPESTEY AND CAEPET INDUSTEY 291 

mixing, printing, and fastening of the colours upon the 
threads which are to form the pile in the carpet necessarily 
claim most marked attention. In Axminster carpet designing 
multitudinous gradations of every conceivable colour are 
conveniently arranged for the designer to select from. 

Two branches, or rather sections, of the textile industry 
are not dealt with here, the hosiery industry and the 
ribbon, braid, and trimming industry. The hosiery 
industry has now attained to such dimensions and is so 
intimately associated with the stockinette frame and lace 
machine that it of necessity claims distinct treatment. 
The ribbon industry is so intimately connected with the 
bandolier, lace, and other narrow goods industry that it 
also is of sufficient im^jortance to be considered as a 
distinct industry. 



u 2 



CHAPTER XV 

SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 

Silk manufacture has had the advantage during the 
last ten or twelve years of competent mstraction m the 
technology of the raw material and its manipulation and 
weaving, together with its relationships to other textile 
fibres. The technical colleges of Manchester, Bradford, 
Leeds, and Macclesfield have made special arrangements 
and facilities for understanding the whole range of study 
from the production of the cocoon to the weaving of the 
fabric. 

In the scope of a single chapter it is impossible to 
attempt any detailed description of the various processes 
of rearing, reeling, throwing or spinning through which 
this interesting and beautiful fibre passes before it is fitted 
for the manufacturer, and we must therefore limit it to 
general characteristics, and especially as an important 
article of commerce, to the increase and improvement in 
character, with the causes which have led up to them. 

That there has been an expansion will be seen later on 
by the figures showing the export from the various silk- 
producing countries, and the amount consumed by each 
great centre of manufacture. As far as our own country 
is concerned there is a general impression that silk weaving 
has materially decreased, and the closing of throwing 




Fig. 67.— Silk Eeeling, a.d. 1500. 




EiG. 68.— Silk Eeeling, 1900. 
By permission of Alessrs. Giov. Battaglio, Liiino, Ttaly. 



294 TEXTILES 

mills and silk factories in Derby, Nottingham, Coventry, 
Macclesfield, and other towns gives colour to this con- 
clusion. But it must be remembered that great economic 
changes have taken place during the last thirty to forty 
years. London is no longer the port of debarcation for 
the Eastern silks of China and Japan, and consequently the 
centre of distribution. The East India Company has ceased 
to hold responsibility for the importation and sale of our 
East Indian colony. The shipping companies now dis- 
embark their silk freights at Genoa and Marseilles as well 
as London, and the Japanese send a large contingent 
of their production across the Pacific to the American 
continent. Then, again, the evolution of the power-loom 
and its adaptation for silk weaving has practically displaced 
the occupation of the old hand-loom weaver, and by its 
introduction a single operative will be producing four times 
the amount as in the former days by the older methods. 
A general desire for cheap fabrics within the purchasing 
power of the million has greatly stimulated the mixed 
goods trade, and the looms of Scotland, of Yorkshire, of 
Lancashire and other districts are now engaged in weaving 
this textile in combination with others, especially with 
mercerized cotton and wool. In spinning and throwing, by 
the introduction of better reeled silks, and the adoption of 
the faster running gravity spindle, the production has been 
nearly doubled, and consequently an equal weight is turned 
out with one half of the labour formerly employed. It is, of 
course, natural that those countries where the raw material 
is indigenous will endeavour to take a first place, or where, as 
in the case of America (a self-contained continent), a desire 
is manifest to retain the supply of its people in every 



SILK THROWING- AND SPINNING 



295 



department of industry in its own hands, which they now 
do by a heavy protective tariff. In addition to their own 
consumption during recent years they have been able to export 
silk goods to England and other countries. 

The following table of imports of raw silk for America 
from the years 1903 to end of 1919 shows the immense 
expansion of the silk industry in this country : — 



During Years. 
Average per Annum. 


1903. 


1904-1908. 


1909-1913. 


1914-1918. 


1919. 


Asiatics .... 
Europe and Levant 


86,000 
27,490 


131,050 
39,420 


201,580 
30,610 


296,630 
4,330 


394,280 
17,200 


Total in bales of 100 
lbs. 


113,490 


170,470 


232,190 


300,960 


411,480 



It will be seen from tables which follow of the world's 
production that America has taken some 80 per cent, of the 
total amount. The imports from Japan alone during the year 
1919 have reached 90 per cent, of that country's exports. 

The following table (p. 296) of silk production and export of 
the various countries where sericulture is carried on show clearly 
that the weight has been nearly trebled during the last fifty 
years. 

These figures do not include the silk used by the natives 
of China, Japan or India. We know that they retain a very 
large contingent of their reehngs, both for home consumption 
and export of fabrics. 

Note. — This table requires some explanation. Up to the 
year 1884 statistics of the countries of Europe were grouped 
with those of the Levant and India. From t.hat date up to 
the present time the yield in Italy, Austria and Hungary does 



296 



TEXTILES 



Table showing Silk Production and Export of the 
Various Countries (in Bales of 100 Lbs. each). 



During years. 
















Average per 
annum. 


Eiii-ope. 


Levant. 


India. 


Cliina. 


Canton. 


Japan. 


Total. 






56,915 


19,110 


14,400 




1870 to 1874 


105,250 


195,675 


1875 to 1879 


78,320 


67,520 


17,666 


17,560 


181,066 


1880 to 1884 


109,400 . 


63,050 
56,715 


18,090 
23,200 


24,970 
41,860 


215,510 


1885 to 1889 


90,700 


14,670 


17,330 


244,475 


1890 to 1894 


93,580 


17,760 


5,775 


68,585 


28,510 


58,505 


272,715 


1895 to 1899 


93,820 


20,700 


7,160 


77,900 


43,300 


72,375 


324,195 


1900 to 1904 


93,525 


46,635 


6,050 


96.435 


46.280 


98,630 


387,555 


1905 to 1909 


122,470 


60,750 


6,335 


102.300 


47,895 


140,460 


480,210 


1910 to 1914 


101,583 


53,209 


3,533 


121,035 


49,839 


223,441 


552,640 


1915 to 1919 


70,092 


20,790 


2,354 


104,984 


46,816 


312,796 


557,832 



not appear to have been materially increased, the average 
yield per annum being about 90,000 bales. The Levant 
(which includes Persia and Central Asia), taking an average, 
has more than doubled. The decrease during the years 
1915 to 1919 may be attributed to the effect of the War in 
Asia Minor. India appears to show a decline of a serious 
nature. Up to 1889 the industry was protected and fostered 
by the control of the East India Company, After its with- 
drawal the decrease has been accentuated year by year, 
partly owing to the apathy of the native reelers, who preferred 
to reel the coarser silks for native manufacture, but mainly 
through the closing of the Bengal filatures worked by European 
capitalists. Their mills were employed for the production of 
silk suitable for export to Europe, but this proved unprofitable, 
owing to various economic conditions in India. The country 
manufactures more silk than it produces, so that it is difl&cult 
to ascertain its full complement of production. The Chinese 
exports have doubled as compared with those of fifty years 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 297 

ago. During the last twenty years they have remained 
stationary at about 100,000 bales per annum. This only 
represents about one-half of their production ; they retain 
fully 100,000 bales for home consumption. From 1885 to 1919 
the Cantonese have doubled their exports, and by the establish- 
ment of filatures under European management they have 
improved the quality of the silk and increased the demand for 
it by American and European manufacturers. The greatest 
expansion in the world's production is attributable to the 
Japanese, which has more than trebled itself since the year 
1900. This is owing to their extended cultivation of the 
mulberry and their improved methods of rearing and reeling. 
It is well known that their manufacturing requirements have 
increased in like proportion. The home demand and the 
manufacture of fabrics for export probably account for the 
retention of at least one-third of the total yield in this country. 

The cause of this increased output is not attributable to 
a single department of its cultivation and manipulation. 
All along the line Western science has been brought to bear, 
resulting in improved methods of rearing, reeling, and 
spinning. In France alone the production, which in the 
year 1820 reached 1,000,000 lbs., trebled itself during the 
following decade, and between the years 1840 and 1855 
the estimated production was 4,500,000 lbs. ; but this 
excessive development brought in its train serious con- 
sequences. The large breeders brought millions of worms 
together in one room, an overcrowding which induced a 
serious disease, and nearly threatened the extinction of the 
species throughout the whole of Southern Europe, and 
more or less in China and Japan, but without such serious 
results in these last-named countries. 

This catastrophe, however, laid the foundation for greater 



298 TEXTILES 

care in the breeding, and consequently for the better results 
of which we now reap the benefit. The whole world of 
sericulture will ever be indebted to M. Pasteur, who in the 
year 1865 was called to the rescue from what in France 
was looked upon as a national calamity. After two years of 
close study and experiment he succeeded in discovering 
and pointing out the cause of the malady and the means 
of preventing it. In the first place, healthy seed was 
imported from Japan, the country which had least suffered, 
and so the practice of cross-breeding became universal, and 
amongst the best "graineurs" to-day great care is exercised 
in the selection of the finest cocoons from the various 
districts in order to establish new and healthy breeds of 
silkworms. The main remedy was effected by the practice 
of " cellular incubation," viz., the examination of the eggs 
under the microscope, in order to ascertain if the produc- 
tion of each moth had within it the source of infection for 
a future race. During the next ten years this method of 
inspection was adopted by every well-ordered establishment, 
in every country, with the exception of the Chinese, who 
still suffer from year to year by their antiquated methods 
both in quality and quantity of the seasons' yield. 

A book recently published by M'Laurent de L'Arbousset, 
of Alais, France, and translated from the French by 
Elizabeth Wardle, the talented daughter of the late 
Sir Thomas Wardle (President of the Silk Association of 
Great Britain and Ireland), reveals to us other causes of 
improvement than those of interbreeding and microscopical 
inspection, important as they are. The mulberry, the staple 
food of the Bomhyx mori, is now cultivated under the most 
methodical and improved conditions, and calculated to 
afford the highest degree of nutrition. By careful selection 



SILK THEOWING AND SPINNING 299 

of healthy stock plants, grafting, pruning, and Judicious 
gathering of the leaves, especially during the earlier 
growth, a more succulent and nourishing food is obtained 
and the trees are better able to resist the fungoid diseases 
to which they are liable. Magnaneries (rearing sheds) are 
more carefully warmed and ventilated, the silkworms are 
better spaced, and by cleanliness and mild fumigations of sul- 
phurous acid or formalin the silkworms are kept freer from 
the diseases to which they are liable, and consequently spin 
a more robust cocoon, better in quality and the thread of 
greater length. In marketing the cocoons they are classi- 
fied as to quality, and in stoving. (with the object of killing 
the chrysalide) new and improved apparatus has been 
introduced. The peasants in country districts adopt very 
primitive means of effecting this. One method described 
by this writer is that of subjecting them to the baking- 
process. After the bread has been withdrawn from the 
baker's oven, the bare arm is thrust into it, and, if the 
heat can be borne without scorching, the cocoons, placed 
in baskets, are then inserted and retained until the 
operator is satisfied that life no longer remains. Steaming, 
however, gives a much better quality of fibre, and in the 
absence of specially-constructed apparatus they are placed 
in baskets over a copper of boiling water, and after a 
complete desiccation spread out in the sun to dry 
thoroughly. 

By the adoption of the foregoing methods the net yield 
from one ounce of graine, or eggs, has during the last 
twenty-five or thirty years been trebled, and in many 
instances quadrupled. It is now calculated that from this 
incubation of healthy and carefully-selected seed seventy 



300 



TEXTILES 



kilos of cocoons may be produced, 90 per cent, of which are 
of the first quaUty. But we pass on to note the stages by 
which the reeling has been brought up to its present 
standard of efficiency in the improvement of the reeled silk 
and the lowered cost of production. In the year 1820 a 




Fig. 69. — Croissure hj the System Chambon. 

French inventor, Gensoui, of Bagnols-sur-Leze, introduced 
the process of heating the reeling basins by steam, which, 
by removing a separate oven for each basin and the driving 
of each reel separately by hand, enabled the workers to be 
placed nearer together on one table, and by one driving-wheel 
the whole line of reels are worked by the same motive power. 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 



301 



In 1828 a further improvement was introduced by Chambon, 
of Alais, which established the universal use of the Crois- 
sure which improved the reeled threads by making them 
rounder and more compact and homogeneous. Unfortu- 
nately this apparatus gave rise to what is known in the 




Fig. to. — Oroissure by Tavalette. 

trade as ''mariages," or double threads running parallel 
together on the reel and needing separation in the winding 
and throwing of the silk for manufacture. This has been 
obviated by the use of the Tavalette croissure, each separate 
thread being crossed upon itself (with thirty to forty turns), 
and is carried singly by means of small pulleys on to the 
reel. The waste material on the outside of the cocoon, 



302 



TEXTILES 



which had to be removed by the whisking of a brush in a 
separate basin, and by hand, is now effected by automatic 
machinery. The work of one reeler was under the older 
system confined to two sets of cocoons. (From four to six 
threads or cocoons are combined to make one thread of 




Fig. 71 — The Jette-bout, combining Five Cocoons in One Thread. 

raw silk.) Now, under the new conditions, the reeler can 
easily superintend in one enlarged basin from four to six 
sets of cocoons, in addition to which the reels can be driven 
faster. In spite of the mechanical improvements in the 
apparatus used, it is necessary that great care should be 
exercised in order to avoid those defects which would impair 



SILK THEOWING AND SPINNING 303 




Fig. 72.— Duvet. 




Tig. To. — ^Bouciions or Slubs. 



304 



TEXTILES 



the quality or cause trouble in the weaving. A few of the 
imperfections to which bad reeling gives rise may be indi- 
cated, r First, Duvet gives the appearance of short fibres 
thrown off from the main continuous thread. This was 
attributed formerly to the silkworm spinning an imperfect 
have on the cocoon ; but while there may be variation in 
thickness between the first and last end of the spun thread, 
there is no mechanical imperfection caused naturally. The 
microscope reveals to us the real cause, either frequent and 




Fig. 74.— Knots. 

imperfect joinings as the cocoons become attached to the 
main thread, or still more by an uneven temperature in the 
reeling basin (which should be kept at 140° to 160*^ Fahr.), 
thus causing the silk to unwind itself unevenly and cause 
small loops. Secondly, Foul or Slitbs (bouchons) present 
a more aggravated form of the above-named defect, the 
layers of the thread on the cocoon coming off en masse. 
There are few productions actually free from this fault, and 
the native reelers of China silks are so careless that it is 
only by passing the thread through cleaners (steel blades 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 305 

closed so as to stop the boucbons) that their productions 
can be utihzed Thirdly, Knots are unavoidable, but by 
careful oversight they may be minimized, and under any 
circumstances be neatly made. Fourthly, Baves imperfectly 
joined together give the thread an open and soft appear- 




FlG. "5. — Baves .mperfectly Joined. 

ance. They are mainly caused during a temporary 
stoppage of the reeling, some of the threads from the 
cocoon drying more quickly than others. Fifthly, VriUes 
give the thread a creped appearance, and are produced by 
the breakage of one of the baves when it is necessary to 
reduce the number of the cocoons. 




Pig. 76.— VriUes. 

Most of these faults may be discerned while the silk is 
in the raw or gum state. During the last decade a much 
graver imperfection (but not new by any means) has formed 
the subject of controversy amongst experts. It is known 
as silk louse, causing an appearance when discharged or 
dyed and wound on the bobbin of specks of dust. When 



306 



TEXTILES 



placed under a high power of the microscope these minute 
specks present the appearance of numberless fibrils indi- 
cating a rupture and division of the original have and brin 
of the silk. It has been variously attributed to (a) the use 
of disinfectants in the rearing sheds chemically disin- 




FiG. 77.— Silk-louse. 

tegrating the fibre ; (h) an imperfect croissure, the reeler 
failing to give the necessary number of turns of the thread 
upon itself ; (c) undue punishment in the process of 
boiling, dyeing, or lustreing, specially the latter. So far 
no satisfactory solution has been arrived at, and it is most 
probable that it may arise from a combination of causes. 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNINa 307 

Certain it is that some classes of silk are more liable to it 
than others, and as the appearance is only spasmodic there 
may be certain seasons and countries where the conditions 
of rearing and reeling are unfavourable. 

In the production of a good weaving thread it is equally 
necessary that the throwster should take every precaution 
either to minimize by cleaning the reeling defects of the raw 
silk, or, by good machinery and careful oversight in his own 
processes, avoid the production of faults incidental to this 
particular process of manipulation. A brief rf'sume of the 
work of the throwster may not be out of place. In dealing 
with the raw silk for throwing, the treatment should be 
varied according to quality. The filature silks of Italy, 
Chma, and Japan are fairly even in size, and the skeins are 
reeled in hanks suited for winding without separation, 
whereas those of China reeled by the natives come to us in 
mosses or hanks weighing nearly 1 lb., and require very care- 
fully splitting into smaller hanks. They are usually so uneven 
in the thickness of the thread that it is necessary to classify 
them, otherwise the union of a thick and thin thread 
produces in the two-folded tram or organzine a loopy or 
crinkled appearance, which is a serious fault and drawback 
to the after-processes in the manufacture. Where the silk 
in reeling has touched the arms of the reel a hard gum is 
formed, and requires carefully softening either by the 
immersion of that portion of the skein in a softening emulsion 
or by a complete washing of the bulk in a soap bath. The 
cost of winding varies according to the method of reeling. 
Those silks produced in well-equipped filatures or factories 
are as nearly perfect as possible, and one worker can 
superintend 80 to 100 spindles, the bobbin taking up 

X 2 



308 



TEXTILES 



50 metres per minute, as against inferior native silks 20 to 
25 spindles, and the waste caused by these latter is much 
heavier. In the next process of cleaning equal care is 
required, so that all the bouchons or foul may be eliminated, 




ElG. 78., — The Eitson Spinning Mill. 

and where tied out a neat knot should be made and the ends 
cut off shortly. The process of doubling two or more threads 
together requires equal vigilance. Two ends of equal size 
should be run together, the tensions on each carefully 
adjusted, and each thread passed through an automatic 
faller or eye, so that one thread cannot pass on to the 




Fig, 79.— Spinner (new type). 



;iio 



TEXTILES 



bobbin singly. In spinning, doubling, and twisting marked 
im[ rovements have been effected in late years by better and 
faster-running machinery. The Eitson spinning mill, 
introduced in 1880, with a separate cotton band for each 
spindle driven by a cylinder, was only capable of doing 



















* 


■■ 


■n^^ 


-f-tt -iK; :«:--jf-f3LJL_ 




1 r 


-—^.,'4!' ■ 

ill 


T. 1 1 W\ 1 1 UJJ 


g 




^f^:r?^-' 




1 


W^ 


_JH^SB**'^^\, , <St "^ ' ^ 



EiG. 80.— Throwing Mill, Twisting and Heeling Combined. 

effective work at 3,000 to 4,000 revolutions of the spindle 
per minute. 

This has been superseded by machinery furnished with 
gravity spindles, Avhich are successfully run at the rate of 
10,000 to ] 5,000 revolutions per minute. In addition to this 
advantage the machine only takes up two-thirds of the room 
of the older type. In some cases the final twist is given 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 



311 




312 TEXTILES 

on the same type of machine and the doubled thread reeled 
on a separate reeling machine with automatic stop motion, 
so that each skein is of an equal length. The more 
modern and equally effective method is to twist and reel at 
the same time. A twisting frame built on similar lines to 
that of the spinning mill, but with reels instead of take-up 
bobbins can be driven at the rate of 6,500 revolutions per 
minute. The latest American machine provides for spin- 
ning, doubling, and twisting in one process, but so far it 
can only be adapted for the most perfectly reeled silks of 
Italy and Japan of 14 to 16 deniers in the thread. Finer 
reeled silks and those of a commoner description would 
suffer in quality, and little if any advantage in cost would 
be gained by the adoption of so compounding the processes. 
One of the greatest advantages of late years has been gained 
by the process of cross-reeling known as the Grant system, 
by which a length of 5,000 to 10,000 yards can be reeled in 
one skein. The silk is kept straighter in the dyeing process, 
and the winding is facilitated, and at one-half of the 
original cost as against the smaller hanks. 

As compared with other textiles made from short fibres, 
net silk has distinctive qualities which give to it a precedence 
over them. For instance, its natural brilliancy, trans- 
parency, and absorbent character enables the dyer to 
incorporate with it tannic acids or metallic salts, in some 
cases up to double its original weight, and increasing bulk 
up to 50 to 100 per cent., without in any way impairing its 
natural lustre, and at the same time so incorporating itself 
as part of the original thread that it is perfectly homo- 
geneous, and not, as in some cases, appearing as an accretion 
outside of the thread or fibre itself. The properties of 



SILK THEOWING AND SPINNINa 313 

elasticity and tenacity are also important factors, specially 
for weaving in the single thread without twist, as also 
those combinations where a strain is put upon the warp 
threads to produce certain effects. 

Careful assays are made in what is known as condition- 
ing houses to ensure to the buyer an article specially suited 
to his purpose. The absorbent quality admits of too great 
a percentage of moisture or water being incorporated with 
it when sold, in fact, up to 5 or 6 per cent, over the normal, 
without in any way appearing fraudulent. To arrive at a 
fair condition 500 or 600 grammes are carefully weighed, 
and afterwards enclosed for fifteen or twenty minutes in a 
specially constructed apparatus or oven, superheated up to 
about 300° Fahr. It is then weighed and 11 per cent, 
added to the absolute dry weight, by which percentage 
it is supposed that we arrive at the proper normal condition. 
A further test is added by decreusage or boiling off the gum 
in order to ascertain that no undue weighting of fatty or 
other matter has been added to increase the weight of silk 
beyond its original condition in the raw state. The tavelle, 
or winding test, is only applied in the case of raw silk as 
a guide to the silk throwster. Five hanks are placed on 
the winding swifts and run for two hours at the rate of 
50 metres per minute on the take-up bobbin. The number 
of breakages during the time are carefully tabulated, and 
the resultant divided into 800 gives the number of spindles 
one worker can superintend. Tests for elasticity and tenacity 
are conducted on a special apparatus called the serimetre. 
The normal amount of elasticity indicating a silk of good 
quality should not be less than 25 per cent, of its length. 
Tenacity or amount of strain before breakage is considered 



314 TEXTILES 

to be satisfactory if the weight borne in grammes is four 
times the denier or size of the thread. For example, a 
10-12 denier raw silk should bear a strain of 40-60 
grammes in weight (equivalent to about 1 oz. avoirdupois), 
and so on in proportion with all other sizes. 

Assays for size or count are made by reeling 20 skeins 
of a given length, weighing each separately, which will 
indicate the range or variation, and thus showing the com- 
parative evenness of the thread, or otherwise, and by 
striking a mean average of the totals the size or count will 
be ascertained, by which calculations may be built up for 
the manufacturer. An international metric count has been 
established in all silk centres as approved by the Paris 
Convention of 1900. This is based upon the metre for 
length, and the gramme for the weight — e.g., No. 100, 
means that 100 metres will weigh one gramme. What is 
known as the legal count for raw and thrown silks is based 
upon the number of half decigrammes per 450 metres, and 
corresponds very nearly to the former method of weighing 
by the denier (33^ deniers = 1 dram avoirdupois) per 476 
metres. The nomenclature for counts and sizes for various 
textiles is so varied that the student or manufacturer 
should furnish himself with the small handbook of " Inter- 
national Yarn Tables," compiled and arranged by McLennan, 
Blair & Co., of Glasgow, an absolutely indispensable office 
guide. 

The question of the quality of the silks of various countries 
is varied according to climate, soil, rearing and reeling, etc., 
and can only be assessed by actual practice and by some 
knowledge of the various fabrics for which they are best suited. 
The question of grading and chops varies in the course of a 



SILK THEOWING AND SPINNING 



315 




316 TEXTILES 

few years. They are subject to expert inspection at the time 
of shipment, and those chops in favour at one period may 
take a secoiidary position later on. A few details respecting 
the various silks now imported may prove of interest. 

French and Italian. — These are mostly yellow gum silks ; in 
fact, the yellow breeds of cocoons are indigenous, and the eggs 
of the white races of the Far East, after a few years' breeding, 
revert to the yellow silks peculiar to these countries. They 
are usually reeled in stock sizes, from 9-11 to 14-16 deniers, 
for the purpose of throwing, and for special articles from 
16-18 up to 30-32 deniers and even coarser, according to the 
number of cocoons reeled together to produce the desired 
size. Great care is exercised by the reeler to produce a well- 
formed and even thread. In this respect the Continental 
silks have secured a premier place in the world's markets. 
The range of size in a test of twenty skeins of 520 yards each, 
by the Milan official regulations, allow a range between the 
finest and coarsest threads of the following variations : — 

Silks of 8-9 to 14-16 denier raws a range of 5 deniers, those 
of 18 to 24 deniers a range of 6 deniers, and those of 26 to 40 
denier silks a range of 7 to 9 deniers. Owing to the dependence 
placed on these silks for evenness and cleanness, the finer 
deniers, 8-9 up to 14-16 deniers, are specially suited for 
organzine and trams, suitable for the manufacture of broad 
goods, glove fabrics, and for the best hosiery webs. The 
coarser reelings, 18-20 to 30-32 deniers, find a ready market 
for weaving in the raw, and for network in silk lace. The 
loss in boiling is about 25 per cent., but great care is required 
in discharging the gum, to avoid fluffiness or silk louse, to 
which they are somewhat liable if over-boiled. By a careful 
selection of cocoons, raws can be produced of different gradings 




>-, 



to 
a 



P^ 






318 TEXTILES 

of quality and excellence. They are usually sold in the 
following degrees of merit : — (1) Exquis ; (2) extra ; (3) 
classic ; (4) ordinary or sublime. The French reelers and 
throwsters grade their productions as follows : — (1) Extra ; 
(2) first order ; (3) second order, and (4) ordinaire. The 
productions of Spain, Austria and Hungary may be classed 
with those of France and Italy. 

Syrian, Brutian, Bulgarian and Persian silks are also 
carefully reeled, and in similar sizes to those before named. 
They are, however, of a softer nature and not so well fitted for 
organzines as for tram silks. The coarser sizes of Bulgarian 
and Brutian silks are largely used for weaving in the gum 
(single thread). The finer sizes of Brutian and Persian silks, 
doubled two or three fold, make an excellent weft when twisted 
heavily for the manufacture of crepe de chine. 

Kashmir Silk. — In 1897 the industry in this province was 
non-existent. The Durbar of Kashmir invited Sir Thomas 
Wardle to initiate and develop sericulture in the district of 
Sringar, and under his superintendence healthy silkworm eggs 
were obtained from Europe and distributed to some 15,000 
village householders for the rearing and cultivation of the 
mulberry. Taking an average of four persons for each 
family, it would appear that some 60,000 to 70,000 persons 
might be profitably employed. Factories were established 
for the reeling, and some 200 hand looms were sent out from 
this country for the weaving of fabrics, pongees and corahs, 
similar to those woven in Japan. In the year 1900 the annual 
production of raw silk was 57,921 lbs., and by the year 1906 
it had increased to 190,736 lbs., and at that period there was 
every probability of a progressive increase. It has to be 
regretted that these expectations have not been fulfilled. 



SILK THRO WING AND SPINNING 319 

During the last ten years, owing to economic and other causes, 
the production has dechned, and the 200 looms for weaving 
now remain idle. The owners found it impossible to compete 
with the better methods of the Japanese. The seed is im- 
ported annually from Europe, the race is univoltine, viz., 
one crop per annum, and the silk is much superior to the 
ordinary silks of India from the eastern provinces. Reeled 
in 10-12, 13-15 and 16-20 denier sizes, there is a ready market 
both on the Continent and in our own country for this class of 
sillc for many purposes of manufacture. There is another 
district in the Punjaub producing silk of a similar character, 
and under hke conditions, which is being imported under the 
title of " Soondor." This has been tested and approved by 
manufacturers, and an increase of production and exports 
would be welcomed. 

Bengal Silks.— The exports of the silk produced from the 
multivoltine species (three crops or bunds per annum) have 
decHned to a neghgible quantity, as will be seen from the 
tables previously given. The cultivation of the mulberry 
and of sericulture was principally carried out in the provinces 
of Mysore, Madras, Bengal and Assam. There are some 
possibihties of development in the first-named, but so far this 
hope has proved disappointing from various causes. The 
decline in the industry has been attributed to various causes. 
An important factor in the situation has been the withdrawal 
of European firms from the trade in recent years. Formerly 
these firms bought the cocoons, reeled the silk in filatures, and 
exported the raw silk and waste. With the fall in price for 
raw silk (before the war) the prices ofSered by the firms for 
cocoons did not attract sufficient supplies to keep the filatures 
employed, and the majority have been closed down. The 



320 TEXTILES 

silks sold in Europe as Surdahs, Rangamatty Banjetty, 
Gonatea, etc., have entirely disappeared, and those called 
Rose filatures are the only ones known in the English market. 
Other factors have contributed to this decline : (a) excessive 
rent-charges for mulberry lands ; (b) degeneration and disease 
of the worms ; (c) competition of other crops ; (d) want of 
cohesion and organization by the native reelers, who are 
mostly in the hands of middlemen. To these may be added a 
deterioration in the quality and winding of these silks as 
compared with the better productions of Japan. There is a 
good demand for silk for native manufacture, but the native 
reelings are being gradually displaced by importations of raw 
silk of low grades from China and Canton. The silks of the 
Bengal provinces being multivoltine the have is finer, and the 
cocoon only yields two-thirds the length of th6 univoltine 
species. The thread is softer and more liable to dump, 
but it yields a bright thread after dyeing, and is especially 
suitable for weft, particularly when dyed black or dark 
colours. The sizes run from 10-14, 12-16 up to 16-20 deniers. 
Cantons. — These also are the produce of multivoltines. 
The Cantonese produce six crops annually. The silk is similar 
in quality to the Bengals, but as the colour is a creamy white 
it lends itself to the lighter shades of colouring, and when 
well reeled is adapted particularly for crepe de chine weft. 
Formerly this silk was all in the hands of native reelers, and 
very coarse and uneven. European enterprise and capital 
has established numberless filatures, and both for size, 
evenness and good winding properties they compete favour- 
ably with the filature silks of other countries. There are still 
some native reeled silks, but even these are of much better 
type than the exportations of twenty years ago. They are 



SILK THEOWING AND SPINNING- 321 

mostly used for native manufacture and export to India. 
Only tlie best chops are now imported for European and 
American consumption. 

From a recent inspection (1918-1919) the following may be 
taken as typical grades of these silks. They are reeled from 
10-12 to 16-20 deniers :— 

Extra. Best I. 

Anchor Chop. Chung Wo Hing. 

Loong Wing. Hip Kee. 

Tsung Wai Hang. Kwong Hing Wo. 

Wing Cheong Sing. Moon Chop. 

Petit Extra. Bon I. 

Chee Chung Wo. Airship. 

Chun Sun Hung. Hip Lun. 

Dragon and Phoenix. Kwong Min Lun. 

King Seng. Wing Cheung Lun. 

Best 8tar. First Order. 

Fat Kee. Bamboo Chop. 

Han King Lon. Min Lun. 

Kwong Tong Yuen. Kwong Wo Ching. 

Kum Lun Tai " Kittong." Wing Cheong Hang. 

As there are some 300 different chops in the importers' hst 
those named are not given as being the best in each grade, but 
only typical of many others. There are still one or two 
imported as Best III., viz., Soey Wo Cheong and Yee Wo Ling, 
but as these native filatures are subject to " manages" or 
double threads, caused by an imperfect croisure, and are very 
uneven in size they can only be used for lower-class goods. 

"Japans." — These silks now form the most important 
factor in American and European imports. They have vastly 
improved during the last fifteen or twenty years, both for 
colour, reeUng and general characteristics. They are good 
winding, fairly even, firm in the thread, and capable of being 
dyed and weighted (especially in colours) to double their 

T. Y 



322 TEXTILES 

original weight (when boiled ofi). The sizes used for throwing 
in organzines and trams run from 8-9 to 14-16 deniers. During 
recent years the Japanese laid themselves out for the coarser 
deniers, suitable for weaving in the single thread. In the best 
grades we are able to import 16-18, 18-20 and even heavier 
sizes by arrangement with the importer. The American 
manufacturers use these silks more extensively than those of 
any other province or country. One special advantage of 
Japan silks is the minimum percentage of gum. The loss in 
boiling of the white silks does not exceed 18 to 20 per cent., 
as against European silks and those of India and Canton 
25 per cent. 

During the season 1918-1919 the Japanese imported Euro- 
pean seed of the yellow races for special reehng. They pro- 
duced a clean, bright and even thread of good tenacity and 
lustre, but as the loss in boiling was some 5 or 6 per cent, more 
than the white silk, and the colour not so well adapted for 
light shades, they could only command a secondary place in 
the market. 

Although the production comes from various provinces, the 
bulk of our imports are named under the generic term of 
Sinchus. There are numberless chops (the trade mark of the 
reelers), but the classification for quality is much simpler, 
viz., Extras : Best I. : No. 1 : l-li : li : 11-2 : Best II. The 
last two are only used in small quantities for European con- 
sumption ; they are probably retained by the Japanese for 
home consumption. Another class of Japan filatures are the 
Kakedahs, reeled in sizes 10-12 to 14-16 denier, and are grouped 
as follows : — 

Extra . . . Kakedah Kimpai, Kintoke. 

No. 1 . . . Hime Daruma : Kinko. 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING .323 

No. 11 . . " One horse head." 

No. 2 . . . " Two horse heads." 

No. 3 . . . " Three horse heads." 

No. 4 . . . Botan, Nivatori, Okame. 

There are also from another district the Zangouris, in 
different grades from a No. 1 to No. 2, but these are seldom on 
the market here. The best are reeled for America, and 
probably the lower grades are retained for home consumption. 
They are good white, boney silk, but not so well reeled as the 
Sinchus and Kakedahs. 

China Silks cover so wide an area and are so varied in 
quality so that only general details can be included in this 
chapter, so must confine our description by a general classifi- 
cation. 

(1) " Steam Filatures." — These are produced in factories 
in the neighbourhood or within a fifty-mile radius of Shanghai. 
They are reeled under European supervision and with the best 
methods of reeUng, and, therefore, take a first place in the 
world's productions. They are white in colour, even in size, 
of a firm texture, and possess great tensile strength, so that for 
some branches of manufacture they are preferred to any other 
silk, and consequently command very high prices. The 
shipments of this class of Chinas during 1918-1919 season 
reached fully 30,000 bales, of which America took fully two- 
thirds of the exports. The sizes reeled run from 9-10 to 14-16 
deniers for the purposes of throwing in organzine and tram, 
and heavier sizes, 16-18 to 24-26 deniers, for weaving purposes 
in the single thread. 

From a recent table of classifications by a French importer 
we find there are some 200 available " chops " from which we 
select only a few typical ones from each grade. 

Y 2 



324 


TEXTILES 
Extra. 




Sin Chong 


. Factory 


. Extra 1 and 2 


Soey Lun 


Anchor . 


. Extra 1 and 2 


Yang . 


Rayon d'or . 


Extra 1 and 2 


Ewo filature . 


. E.W.F. . 


. Best 1 and 2 


Young Tai 


. Double Deer . 
Petit Extra. 


. No. 1, 2 and 3 


M. Denegri . 


. M.D. . 


Extra 1 and 2 


Yah Ha 


. W.T.K. 


Extra 1 and 2 


Yuen Lun 


Centaure 


Extra 1 and 2 


Gee Sang 


Bayard . 


. Extra 1 and 2 


Chue Len 


Gold Mulberry Leaves 
Best No. 1. 


. Extra 1 and 2 


Yat Woo 


Geranium 


. Extra 1 and 2 


Ting Yue 


Pasteur 


Extra 1 and 2 


Yah Sin Chong 


. Billiken 


Extra 1 and 2 


Chun Liung . 


Flying Lizards 


. 1, 2 and 3 


Shanghai Fiiatui 


I'c . Pegasus 

No. 1. 


Extra 1 and 2 


Yat Kee 


Arbutus 


. Extra 1 and 2 


Yue Lun 


Peacock 


Extra 1 and 2 


Lee Len 


Field Marshal 


. Extra 1 and 2 


Chue Len 


Fountain 


Extra 1 and 2 


Yue Kong 


Camelia 

Best No. 2. 


Extra 1 and 2 


Yung Tai 


: Gold Globe . 


. 1, 2 and 3 


Sin Kee 


Chrysanthemum 


Extra 1 and 2 


Lun Kee 


Airship . 


Extra I and 2 


Tsun Nee 


Flower Boat . 


Extra 1 and 2 


Tsun Chong . 


Lotus . 

No. 2. 


. Extra 1 and 2 


M. Denegri . 


Eose 


. Extra 1 and 2 


Lee Chong 


. Gold Dollar . 


Extra 1 and 2 


Yuen Chong . 


. Lily . 


Extra 1 and 2 


Pao Kee 


Tramcar 


Extra 1 and 2 


Yun Kong 


, Carnation 


Extra 1 and 2 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 



325 





Best 3. 




Shing Wah . 


. Double Fish and Dragon . 1 and 2 


Yer Kee 


Begonia. 


Extra 1 


Sin Lun 


S.L. . ... 


. Extra 1 


Soo King 


Woman and Loom . 


. Extra 1 


Chang Lun . 


Tramcar 
" No. 3 Ordinary GJiopsy 


. Extra 1 


Yung Sin Chong 


Moon 


Extra 1 


Tseng Lun 


Gold Flying Tiger . 


. Extra 1 


Pao Woo 


Lighthouse 


. 1 and 2 


Sing Dah 


Flying Girl 


. 1 and 2 


Yang Lee 


Shepherd 


. 1 and 2 


(2) " Re-reelsr- 


-These silks are very similar to the 



reeled silks, both as to size and quality. In fact, they are the 
native-reeled silks, wound by Chinese women, carefully cleared 
of some of the bouchons or foul by passing through the fingers, 
and by re-reeling a better winding is obtained. The finer and 
better portions of the silk are selected for this purpose, so that 
part of the cost of manipulation in silk-throwing is saved, a 
great desideratum at the present time, with the increased cost 
of labour and shorter hours of working. The exports during 
the last fifteen years have increased materially. From im- 
porters' statistics in the season 1914-1915 they reached fully 
20,000 bales, more than four times the quantity of the ordinary 
native reels. The size in the raw is about 20 to 24 deniers. 

To meet the American demand during the last fifteen years 
there has been an improvement in the style of reeling on 
the " Grant System," and these are now exported both to 
Europe and America under the designation " New Style." 
We append a list of a few of the best chops : — 



May Hun Ye. 
May Hun Ye . 
May Hun Ye. 



JVew Style. 
Gold Eagle and Globe 
Gold Eagle and Bell 
Gold Swan 



Extra 1 and 2 
Extra 1 and 2 
Extra 1 and 2 



326 



TEXTILES 



Tin Lung 
Ewo Yung 
Gee Kee 
Yin Kee 
Mai Hun Yue 
Chu Yun Mur 
Gee Chong Lung 



Gold Flags Tripod . 
Gold Double Deer . 
Gold Incense Burner 
Gold Kangaroo 
Blue Dragon . 
Blue Monster 
Star and Stripes 



Extra 1 and 2 
Extra 1 and 2 
Extra 1 and 2 
Extra 1 and 2 
Extra 1 and 2 
Extra 1 and 2 
1, 2 and 3 



The ordinary reel Tsatlee re-reels are still imported largely ; 
these are not cross-reeled, therefore not so free winding, but 
they possess almost equal merit in quality as those of the 
" New style." They are classified as follows : — ■ 



Best Fine Size. 



Crown, 1, 2, 3. 

Gold Winding Mill, 1, 2, 3. 

Gold Scale, I, 2, 3. . 



Best. 



Pegasus, 1, 2, 3. 
Buffalo, A, B, C. 
Red Dragon, 1, 2, 3. 
Bicycle, A, B, C. 



Cloud and Dragon, 1, 
Blue Lion, 1, 2, 3. 
See May Zien, 1, 2, 3. 

Gold Eagle, 1, 2, 3. 
Spinning, 1, 2, 3. 
Fan, Extra 1 and 2. 
Sze She Shing, 
Sze She Shing, 
Chun Tai. 
Show Yin Kee. 
Yee Fong Zung Kee. 
Hung Kee. 

Kung Kee. 



No. 1. 



2,3. 



No. 2. 



No. 3. 



Running Deer, 1, 2, 3. 
Cloud Horse, 1, 2, 3. 



Red Fish, 1, 2, 3. 
Grasshopper, A, B, C. 
Black Horse, 1, 2, 3. 
Double Red Eagle, 1, 2, 3. 



Gold Fish, 1, 2, 3. 
Blue Pheasant, 1, 2, 3. 



Mermaid, 1, 2, 3. 
Three Josses, 1, 2, 3. 
Magpie, 1, 2, 3. 
Small Biiffalo, 1 and 2. 
SSS Mars, 1 and 2. 
Gold Mars, 1 and 2. 
Mars, 1 and 2. 
Gold Unicorn, 1 and 2. 
Double Crabs, 1 and 2. 

Mars, 1. 



SILK THEOWING AND SPINNING 



32Y 



The silks from the Hainin district (the size of which is much 
finer than the Tsatlees) are also re-reeled both in the new 
style and ordinary method. The colour of these silks is not 
so bright as those reeled from the Tsatlee district. The follow- 
ing are a few of the chops imported : — 





Best. 




Tuck Shing . 


Yellow Peacock 


Extra 1 and 2 


Tuck Shing . 


Blue Peacock 


Extra 1 and 2 


E. Tsun 


Gold Pheasant 


Extra ] and 2 


E. Tsun 


Blue Pheasant 


Extra 1 and 2 


E. Tsun 


Music . 


Extra 1 and 2 


E. Tsun 


Races . 


Extra 1 and 2 


Tuck Kee 


Three Stars . 


Extra 1 and 2 


Tuck Kee 


Comet . 

No. 1. 


Extra 1 and 2 


King Woo 


Green Flymg Stork 


1, 2, 3 


Woo Nien Zung 


Chinese Volunteer . 


Extra 1 and 2 



(3) " Native Reels.'" — In the white silks these include 
Tsatlees, Kahings, Hainins and Hangchows, Owing to the 
selection of the best and finest hanks for re-reeHng purposes 
the white native silks of China have greatly deteriorated. The 
increased cost of labour has caused a preference to be given 
to re-reels for European consumption. Tsatlees formerly 
constituted the main supply for the throwster. In the season 
1914-1915 the export did not exceed 5,000 bales, and to-day 
it is still less. The Kahings, Hangchows, Woozies, etc., only 
find a very restricted export. The cocoons from these districts 
are bought up by the steam filatures for reehng in the factories 
of the Shanghai district. Naturally the cocoon of the white 
China species is second to none ; in fact, if it could be pro- 
duced under the same scientific conditions as those of Europe 
and Japan, for strength, lustre, etc., it would be the very best. 



328 TEXTILES 

In the districts where the rearing takes place there is no 
microscopic selection of healthy graine or eggs, and conse- 
quently the worms are liable to the ravages of diseases to 
which the silkworm is subject. 

The number of chops of Tsatlee silks and the gradings 
twenty years ago made quite an extensive hst, but recent 
imports only include the following, which are given in order 
of quahty : — Blue Elephant, Buffalo 3, Silver Double Elephant, 
Silver Electric Fan, Blue Double Elephant, Gold Lion, Gold 
KiHng, Choey KiUng, Red Kiling, and Running Deer. Ordinary 
reels have gone out of favour with European markets, and 
the above chops are practically all in which business is now 
done. 

(4) Yellow Silks. — These are produced principally in the 
provinces of Shantung and the Seychuen districts. They were 
reeled formerly in large skeins 4 to 6 feet in circumference 
under different titles, and consequently difficult to wind. 
The silk was coarse, uneven and foul, and could only be 
utiHzed for sewings or very coarse fabrics. During the last 
eight or ten years native filatures and re-reels have been 
introduced, so that they are now coming into more extended 
use. The Shantung and Minchew filatures and re-reels are 
serviceable silks for many purposes of manufacture, especially 
where they can be used for darker colourings. The filatures 
are reeled in sizes from 12-15 to 16-18 deniers, and the winding 
of the best chops run from 50 to 70 tavelles. The re-reels run 
in sizes from 18-22 deniers to 22-28 deniers, and in the inferior 
quahties still coarser. The loss in boiling is fully 25 per cent. 
Reference as to chops and grades may be obtained from 
importers' classifications published by Messrs. Sulzer, Rudolph 
& Co., Messrs. Reiss & Co., and Messrs. Wm. Little & Co., of 



SILK THEOWING AND SPINNING 329 

Shanghai. The writer of this chapter is indebted to these 
firms for the chops named in connection with the White 
Chinas, as also to Mr. I. Gaillard, Shanghai, for steam filatures, 
and to Messrs. Gerin, Drevard & Co, for Cantons. 

Duppions. — These are the produce of double cocoons. 
When the silkworm commences to form the cocoon it is 
essential that proper space should be given, otherwise where 
two of them come in close contact their spinnings are inter- 
twined with each other and a double cocoon is formed. In 
reeling, the thread slubs off in a thick, irregular thread. The 
Italian duppion runs from 30-40 deniers and up to 80-100 
deniers. The best reelings are thrown in Italy and Switzer- 
land into sewing and embroidery threads. When cleaned by 
the racleuse machine and gassed a good article is produced. 
Not many of the Chinese or Japanese duppions are exported, 
being reserved for native use. 

Wild Silks, produced in India by the Antherea Mylitta, in 
Northern China by the Antherea Pernyi, and in Japan by the 
Yama Mai species. — The first-named spins a thread of about 
8 deniers in the have, and has a good lustre when boiled off, 
but these silks are not in any demand by European throwsters. 
The Chinese products are exported to America and Europe 
under the title of Chefoo filatures, and have a good sale for 
the manufacture of Tussore silks. The have is about 5 deniers, 
and they are reeled in 30-40 and 40-50 denier sizes. The silk 
from the Yama Mai is kept by the Japs for their own manu- 
facture and embroideries. The grading of the Chefoo filatures 
vary from time to time, owing to change of ownership of the 
filatures, and possible deterioration in quality. From a 
1918-1919 inspection by Messrs. Wilham Little & Co., of 
Shanghai, we give a few of the best chops : — 



330 TEXTILES 

Black Pagoda, 1 and 2. Sun Pagoda, 1 and 2. 

Sun Flower, 1 and 2. Lucky Boy, 1 and 2. 

Gold Crown, 1 and 2. George Washington, 1 and 2. 

Gold Joss, 1 and 2. Mow San Peony, 1 and 2. 

Dragon Fly, 1 and 2. Spinning Girl, 1 and 2. 

Apricot Flower, 1 and 2. Poppies, 1 and 2. 

Gold Double Dragon, 1 and 2. Gold Bat, 1 and 2. 

Black Fish Bowl, 1, and 2. Black Monkey, 1 and 2. 

Chinese and American Flag, 1 and 2. Bamboo, 1 and 2. 

Japanese and American Flag, 1 Bamboo, 1 and 2. 
and 2. 

So far we have only dealt with the silk in the net or raw 
state, and its manipulation in the processes of reeling and 
throwing, but in these stages it is estimated that an equal 
quantity of waste is produced, and which is now utilized 
for silk spinning. In the rearing of the cocoons the blaze 
or fine silken fibres thrown off by the silkworm on the 
bush as a nest on which to form its cocoon is collected, and 
China alone has exported 240,000 lbs. annually of this 
product. Imperfect and pierced cocoons which cannot be 
used for reeling form another source of supply. In the 
reeling process, before a perfect thread can be obtained for 
continuous running the outside threads are brushed off by 
an automatic process, and at least 25 to 30 per cent, of the 
total weight of the cocoon goes into the waste basket. To 
this may be added tlie waste made by the silk throwster in 
the processes of winding, cleaning, and doubling. Doubtless 
some portions of these waste materials were used by the an- 
cients for all time, but under earlier conditions were combed 
and spun by hand. In the regulations of the thirteenth 
and fourteenth centuries in France mention is made of 
galette flourin and filoselle, productions of hand spinning, 
and in 1815 a society was formed in Paris for the encourage- 



SILK THROWING AND SPINNING 331 

ment of the industry on a larger scale and by mechanical 
means. At this period the waste was cut into short lengths 
and spun on lines similar to those then existent in the cotton 
spinning, but in 1830 special machinery was introduced for 
dealing with longer fibres, on the basis of the present 
system of the silk-spinning industry of to-day. To a 
paper read by Joseph Boden, Esq., silk merchant, of 
Manchester, before the Silk Association in February, 1905, 
we are indebted for information as to the rise and progress 
of this branch of textile industry in our own country. It 
appears that the first spinning mill established in England 
was in the year 1792, at Galgate, near Lancaster, but a 
quarter of a century elapsed before this example was 
followed to any extent by other firms. 

On the Continent operations were commenced in Bale 
about the year 1822, and from that period both at home and 
abroad it has made considerable progress and development. 
It may be interesting to know that an approximate estimate 
of the spun-silk spindles in the whole world may be put at 
about 660,000, spread over France, Switzerland, Italy, 
Germany, Austria, England, America, China, Japan, and 
India. The production may be taken roughly at 15,500,000 
lbs. per annum, of which about 11,000,000 are produced 
on the Continent, 3,000,000 in England, and the remainder 
in other countries. 

The predominance gained by the Continent may be 
partly accounted for by the cheaper labour employed, and 
an abundant water supply, so necessary for the purpose of 
schapping, and also more favourable treatment by the 
absence of restrictive factory regulations. By the method 
of schapping, in which a portion of the gum is retained, 



332 TEXTILES 

the processes are somewhat cheapened, a larger yield 
is obtained, and for some purposes, specially where 
required for black dyeing, the yarn has a wider scope 
of utility for the manufacturer. The gum is partially 
removed by the process of maceration and fermentation 
or by chemical means. The English spinners succeed 
in spinning brighter and whiter yarns which, although 
higher in price, command a sale for purposes for which 
the Continental yarns are less suited, specially where 
brilliancy and clearness of colouring is desired for delicate 
tintings and for whites. The methods employed for schap- 
ping, for long spinning, and for what is known as short- 
spuns involve different treatment and special machinery, 
the details of which are so varied that a special chapter 
would be necessary to describe them even in the most 
general outline. My purpose has been to show the evolu- 
tion of the silk industry from the smallest and crudest 
beginnings up to its present conditions of expansion and 
improvement. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE COTTON INDUSTRY 

The cotton branch of the textile industry has increased 
at such a rate during the last century in all parts of the world, 
and has now arrived at such proportions, that it may safely 
be said to occuTJy the foremost position among the industrial 
arts. 

It has more money invested in buildings, plant, and stock, 
and employs more workpeople, directly and indirectly, than 
any other manufacturing branch of trade in this, or probably 
any other country where manufactures are carried on. 

It is supposed that the manufacture of cotton originated 
in India about 1100 B.C., and the methods then used have 
practically remained the same, until within a comparatively 
recent date. The Hindoos spun yarn and manufactured 
material of as fine a quahty as can be produced to-day in 
any Lancashire mill, equipped with the best and most modern 
machinery. - In the course of ordinary events the trade in 
cotton and cotton goods spread westwards, until we find it 
in Italy in the fourteenth, Germany, Prussia and England 
in the sixteenth, France in the seventeenth, and in Eussia in 
the eighteenth century. 

The first reported importation of cotton into England was 
in the year 1298, and it was mainly used for candle-wick. 
Manchester goods, which were principally made from a mixture 



334 



TEXTILES 



of woollen and cotton, or linen and cotton, were first heard of 
in the year 1352. 

The weight and value of the cotton used has reached an 
enormous amount, as will be seen from Table I., which has 
been compiled by the Cotton Spinners' Federation, for 1910. 

Table T. 



Country. 


Number of Spindles. 


Cotton Used. 
All Kinds. 






Bales. 


Great Britain . 


43,154,713 


3,462,823 


Germany 


9,191,940 


1,661,180 


France . 


6,603,105 


923,423 


Austria . 


3,584,434 


705,007 


Italy 


2,867,862 


731,357 


Switzerland . 


1,413,896 


89,360 


Belgium . 


1,110,600 


190,756 


Japan 


1,356,713 


1,068,000 


Spain 


1,387,500 


255,754 


Portugal 


388,000 


86,936 


Eussia . 


2,361,513 


548,892 


Holland . 


395,678 


73,870 


Sweden . 


326,860 


76,559 


Norway . 


65,776 


10,647 


Denmark 


48,104 


20,143 


Levant . 


23,184 


13,100 


Egypt . 


39,200 


4,386 


United States of 






America 


26,242,000 


4,987,000 


Total . 


100,561,078 


14,909,193 



These returns do not include India, China and some other 
small producing countries. 

It will be noticed that the consumption per spindle varies 
very considerably in the different countries ; this, in most 
cases, aris3S from the difference in the counts spun. 

It will be seen also that 43 per cent, of the total spindles 
are in the United Kingdom. 

The greater part of the cotton used is American, as out 



THE COTTON INDUSTE? . 335 

of the total of H,909,193 bales used, 11,668,575 bales are 
of this variety. 

The total production of American during the last season 
was 6,500,000,000 lbs. It is interesting to know that a 
little over a century ago an American ship which imported 
eight bags of cotton, into Liverpool was seized on the 
grounds that so much cotton could not be produced in the 
United States. 

The total world's production during the last twelve 
months is estimated at 8,000,000,000 lbs. 

Particulars as to the number of looms and the amount 
of cloth produced in the various countries are not easy to 
obtain, but Table II. gives the fullest information obtainable 
in regard to the increases in production and reductions in 
wage costs of both cloth and yarn in the United Kingdom 
in the years 1856, 1880, and 1905. 

Table II. is very interesting, as it shows that during the 
last half-century the weight of yarn produced has increased 
by 886-7 million lbs. 

The hours worked have decreased by 7 '5 per cent., and 
the labour cost per lb. of yarn has decreased by 55'8 per 
cent. 

The production of cloth has increased by 7,950 million 
yards ; the hours worked have decreased by 7"5 per cent., 
and the labour cost per yard has decreased by 24*36 per cent. 
During the time these changes have been taking place 
the average wages of the operatives have increased by 
94 per cent., as shown in Table III. 

The changes in hours and wages during the war and since 
have not yet had time to show their effects, but they will 
certainly alter the amounts given in column 3, and there will 
be some drop in the production per spindle and loom. 



336 



TEXTILES 



Table II. 

Peoduction and Costs of Cotton Yarns and Cloths in the 
United Kingdom. 





1856. 


1880. 


1905. 


Eaw Cotton Imports, millions of 








lbs _ . 


1,023-8 


1,629-2 


2,203-5 


Eaw Cotton Exports, millions of 








lbs 


146-6 


224-6 


283-1 


lyarn Production, millions of 








lbs- , average counts . 


745-6 


1,194-0 


1,632-3 


Yarn Exported, millions of lbs. 


182-0 


215-7 


205-0 


Yarn for Home Consumption, mil- 








lions of lbs., average counts 


563-6 


978-3 


1,427-3 


Cloth. Production, millions of yards. 








average width .... 


3,600-0 


7,737-0 


11,550-0 


Cloth Exported, millions of yards . 


2,036-0 


4,496-3 


6,198-2 


Number of Spindles 


28,000,000 


42,000,000 


-iO,000,000 


,, Looms .... 


300,000 


550,000 


700,000 


„ Operatives ^ in weaving 








mills 


175,000 


246,000 


306,000 a 


,, Operatives in spinning 








mills 


205,000 


240,000 


211,000 2 


Working Hours per Week 


60 


5Gh 


55J 


Average Weekly Wages, 17 classes 








of operatives .... 


14s. 6rf. 


19s. 10(7. 


26s. 2d. 


Operatives per 1,000 Spindles 


7-3 


5-7 


4-2 


Production of Yarn per operative 








per year, lbs 


3,6370 


4,975-0 


7,736-0 


Production of Cloth per Operative, 








yards ...... 


20,580 


31,860 


37,740 


Production of Yarn per Spindle per 








Year, lbs., average counts . 


27-0 


28-5 


32-6 


Production of Cloth per Loom per 








Year, yards, average width 


12,000 


14,250 


16,500 


Labour Cost per lb. of Yarn, 








average counts .... 


2-4d. 


2-Od. 


l-06d. 


Labour Cost per Yard of Cloth, 








average width . . . . 


'55d. 


■Uld. 


•416cZ. 



1 Taking an average of 15 per cent, waste. Stocks not taken into 
account. 

2 Eiom latest publislied Blue Books, 1903. 



THE COrrON INDUSTEY 

Table III. 

Average Weekly Wages of Cotton-Mill Operatives, 
Manchester and Oldham Districts. 



337 





1856. 


18S0. 


1905. 




60 hours 


56^ hours 


55J hours 




per week. 


per week. 


per week. 




s. d. 


6-. d. 


s. d. 


Scutcher ...... 


8 


13 8 


24 ti 


Card-room Overlooker . . ... 


28 


38 6 


50 


Drawing-frame Tenter .... 


9 


15 


19 


Spinners' Overlooker .... 


26 


40 


50 


Mule Spinners (average of fine, medium, 








and coarse) ..... 


24 1 


33 6 


45 


Mule Piecers (average of fine, medium, 








and coarse) 


8 3 


10 8 


14 10 


Throstle Spinners 


9 


14 


16 


Doffers 


6 


9 


8 


Eeelers 


9 


12 


17 


Winders 


9 


14 2- 


18 


Warpers 


23 


33 


45 


Beamers ...... 


22 


24 9 


22 


Doubling Overlookers .... 


28 


24 


35 


Doublers ...... 


9 


12 


16 


Gassers ....... 


9 6 


13 


20 


Weavers (average number of looms) 


11 2 


15 3 


24 










Operatives 


14 6 


19 10 


26 2 


Comparison, calculated for number of 








hours worked ..... 


100 


144 


194 



The altered conditions of the operatives are further seen 
by a comparison of the cost of Hving during the periods 
given in Tables II. and III. The particulars regarding 
cost of food have been obtained from the books of one 
of the large Manchester hospitals, no other data being to 
hand. 



338 



TEXTIT.ES 



Table IV. 

Comparative Conditions of Cotton Mill Operatives 
IN the United Kingdom. 





1856. 


1880. 


1905. 


Total number of Operatives em- 








ployed in Cotton Mills 


380,000 


486,000 


523,000 1 


Number of Half-time Operatives . 


10,050 


51,000 


21,000 1 


Age of Cbildren admitted to work 








Half Time 


9 years. 


10 years. 


12 years. 


Age of Childi'en admitted to work 








Full Time .... 


13 years. 


13 years. 


13 years. 




s. d. 


s. d. 


s. d. 


Average House Eents . 


3 


5 


6 


Paid by one of the Manchester 








Hospitals : — 








Meat, per lb 


n 


8 


6 


Flour,, per doz. lbs. . 


2 6" 


2 


1 2 


Bread, per 4 lb. loaf . 


81 


7i 


5^ 


Sugar, per lb 


7" 


3j 


If 


Tea, per lb. ... . 


4 6 


2 


1 4 


Butter, per lb 


1 2 


1 


11 



1 From latest published Blue Books, 1903. 

One very satisfactory feature in this table is the increase 
in the age at which children are allowed to commence work 
as half-timers. It is very probable that at a near date the 
system of half-time working will be abolished in the cotton 
trade, as has been done for some years in the engineering 
trade. 

These increases in production have not arisen through 
any great mechanical invention, seeing that all the radical 
patents for spinning and weaving machinery are dated 
prior to 1825, with perhaps one or two exceptions, such as 
the Heileman Comber, the automatic feeder for openers 
and scutchers, or the piano feed-motion regulator. 



THE COTTON IKDUSTET 339 

Wyatt invented the drawing frame, and Kay the fly 
shuttle in 1738; Lewis Paul the card in 1748, and the 
clever doffing comb mechanism about 1750. 

Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny in 1764, and 
Crompton the mule in 1779. 

The scutcher was invented in 1797, to be improved by 
the addition of the lap-end by Mr. Creighton fifty years 
later, and the piano-feed regulator by Mr. Lord in 1862. 

Holdsworth brought out his wonderful differential motion 
in 1830. It is so far back as 1825 that Richard Roberts 
invented his self-acting mule, and even the ring frame, 
which has made such tremendous strides during the last 
thirty years, was invented more than eighty years ago. 

There has, however, been a steady improvement in the 
details of the various machines, and in the methods of 
production by the machine-makers, so that it is possible to 
run at much higher speeds, and for the operative to attend 
a much larger number of spindles than formerly. 

A few of these improvements may be briefly mentioned : — 

(1) The revolving flat card, in which the old rollers and 
clearers of the roller and clearer card, with the incon- 
venience and dirt, are replaced by a travelling apron of 
flats or combs. This machine has taken many years to 
secure universal adoption, but on account of the cleaner 
work produced and the less cost for attention it is now used 
in almost every case except for very low counts and waste ; 
but it must be said that there are still many people who 
contend that the greater amount of waste made more than 
counteracts the saving in labour. 

The percentage of waste in the roller and clearer card is 
generally about 2, whereas in the revolving flat card it is 5. 

z2 



340 TEXTELBS 

(2) Another great improvement is the presser used in 
connection with preparation frame spindles. This is a 
very simple but most effective addition to the spindle, and 
consists of the addition to the old flyer of a loose leg, to 
which is added a foot called a presser. The outer part, or 
leg, is heavier than the inner part, or foot, and during 
revolution the centrifugal force of the leg being greater than 
that of the foot causes an inward pressure on the bobbin, 
thus enabling the machine to make a bobbin which is not 
so liable to damage in the after-process, and also contains 
a much greater length of material. This improvement has 
tended, in a great degree, to the reduction of cost in the 
preparatory stages of spinning. 

(3) The piano-feed regulator, patented in 1862 by Mr. 
Lord, is also worthy of notice. This invention has for its 
object the regulating of the lap. It consists of a number of 
pedals like the keys on a piano. These pedals " feel " the 
cotton, and if it is too thick or too thin they put into action 
a motion which decreases or increases the rate of feed, thus 
automatically adjusting the volume of cotton in accordance 
with the weight per yard decided upon. 

(4) Another patent of importance is the " Eabbeth " 
spindle for ring spinning and doubling frames. When the 
ring frame was first introduced it had top and bottom 
bearings for the spindle, which required oiling every day. 
This, besides being troublesome, was liable to cause dirty 
yarn, and it was not possible to run the spindle at a greater 
speed than 5,000 revolutions per minute, whereas the 
" Eabbeth," or self-contained gravity spindle, only requires 
oiling about every two months, and even with an unbalanced 
bobbin will run steadily at 20,000 revolutions per minute, 



THE COTTON INDUSTEY 341 

a speed much higher than is required, the maximum speed 
at which the worker can attend to the frame being about 
10,000 revolutions. It will readily be seen what a great effect 
this patent has had in increasing the production of yarn. 

(5) Another patent is the cross-winding frame. This 
machine was rendered necessary mainly on account of the 
changes in the location of the spinning and the weaving 
mills, and to meet the different conditions existing between 
mule and ring spinning mills, as also the hostile foreign 
tariffs. These varied conditions made it necessary to be 
able to send the yarn from place to place with the smallest 
possible amount of tares. 

(6) Then of late years we have had the introduction of 
the automatic feeder into the blowing-room. This machine 
automatically regulates the supply of cotton to the cylinder 
or beater of the opener, and thus more regular laps of 
cotton are produced than formerly, besides reducing the 
cost of attention 50 per cent. 

(7) For certain classes and qualities the yarn spun on 
the mule is still considered to be superior to that produced 
on the ring spinning frame, especially for the very fine 
counts. Although the self-acting mule was invented and 
introduced some considerable time previous to 1856, the 
main principles are still the same, and the same facts hold 
good that this machine has only been improved in its 
detail parts. One of the main advances is concerning the 
number of spindles per mule. In 1856 and 1905 they were 
500 and 1,300 respectively. 

(8) Finally, there is the introduction of the various new 
types of looms. Previous to these there had been no 
radical alterations in the design of the loom for more than 



342 TEXTILES 

fifty years. The automatic loom has made rather slow 
progress in England up to the present time, but there is no 
doubt they have come to stay. When it is borne in mind 
that a weaver can only attend to six looms of the old type, 
as a maximum, whereas he can attend to twelve or more of 
the new type, it will be seen that these automatic looms have 
a future before them. 

In 1856, the earliest period in the tables of comparison, 
on page 323, the average spinning mill was constructed on 
very unsatisfactory principles, and it would contain about 
30,000 spindles. 

The mills generally had narrow, low, dark and ill- venti- 
lated rooms, and the sanitary arrangements were exceedingly 
poor and unsatisfactory. 

The power was in some cases transmitted by means of a 
water wheel, but steam engines were more generally adopted. 
These engines were of the beam type, single condensing, 
with cylinders up to 60 ins. diameter, and 8 ft. stroke, 
running 20 to 30 revolutions per minute. The steam 
pressure was from 20 to 60 lbs. per square inch, and the 
consumption about 25 lbs. of steam, and S^ to 5 lbs. of coal 
per indicated horse-power. 

The power was transmitted to the various rooms by 
means of spur gearing. 

The spinning spindles were either of the mule or riyer 
type, running at 6,000 and 3,500 revolutions per minute, 
and producing '52 lbs. and '4 lbs. of yarn average counts, 
32s. per spindle per week of 60 hours respectively. 

The cost of such a mill was from 45s. to 50s. per spindle, 
including buildings, boilers, engines, machinery, and 
accessories. The cost of a weaving shed was £15 per loom. 



THE COTTON INDUSTET 



343 




60 



S 



344 TEXTILES 

At the present time the average mill contains about 
80,000 spindles, and the yarn produced may be taken at an 
average of 40s. counts. The buildings are of the most 
approved design for cheap production and economical 
driving, and the sanitary arrangements are of the latest. 

The machinery is so arranged that the raw cotton from 
the bale passes through the various machines until it 
arrives in the warehouse in the form of yarn, without 
traversing the same ground twice ; that is, it pursues the 
shortest course possible to save cost in handling. 

This is clearly shown on Fig. 84, which gives -the arrange- 
ment of one of the most modern ring spinning mills, built 
in the shed form. This type has been adopted here because 
the whole of the processes in spinning and weaving can be 
clearly shown. In Fig. 85 a plan of a mill taking the 
cotton from the raw state to the finished product is given. 

The power is mostly transmitted by steam engines, 
although great efforts are at present being made to intro- 
duce driving by electricity. Many mills in foreign countries 
have been arranged with this drive, particularly where 
there is a plentiful supply of water, which enables the 
engineer to install water turbo-generators, and to produce 
the electrical power much more cheaply than where steam 
is used. 

Several mills have been fitted up in England recently 
with electrical driving, but the results have not yet been 
made public, so that it is not possible to say what prospects 
there are for this type of driving. 

Steam turbines have also been installed into several 
mills with very satisfactory results. 

"Where steam engines are used they are of the recipro- 



THE COTTON INDUSTEY 



345 




Fig. 85.— Plan of Cotton Mill. 



eating type, either vertical or horizontal, with double, 
triple, and in some cases quadruple expansion, and of 
powers up to 2,500 indicated horse-power. The cylinders 
are made up to 66 in. diameter, with stroke up to 6 ft. 



346 TEXTILES 

The crank shafts make 60 to 80 revolutions per minute, 
and are fitted with fly-wheels in the form of ro]3e pulleys 
up to 30 ft. diameter, prepared to receive as many as fifty 
ropes of If in. diameter for driving the main shafts in the 
various rooms, thus dispensing with all spur gearing, giving 
greater freedom from breakdown, and much smoother and 
quieter running. 

The steam consumption is from 12 to 16 lbs. of steam, 
and the coal consumption about 1^ to 2 lbs. per indicated 
horse-power. 

In cases where superheated steam is used the compound 
engine is about as economical as the triple expansion 
working under ordinary conditions. 

The present mill hours are 48 per week. 

The flyer frame has become almost obsolete, and the 
mills are either filled with ring or mule spindles, or in 
some cases both types of spinning machinery. 

The speed of the spindles is — mule 11,000 revolutions, 
ring 9,500; and the production "75 lbs. mule, and 1 lb. 
ring average counts 40s. per spindle per week respectively. 

The various processes through which the cotton passes 
from the bales to the yarn or cloth are shown in the form 
of a diagram on page 334 (Fig. 86). 

The cost of a mule mill in 1914 was about 235. per spindle, 
and the cost of a ring mill from 38s. to 42s. per spindle in- 
clusive ; at the present time the cost would be at least three 
times as much. 

The cost of a modern weaving shed is about £26 per loom. 

Most of the extra cost per spindle in the ring mill arises 
from the greater production per spindle, which, as a con- 
sequence, requires more preparation machinery. 



THE COTTON INDUSTRY 



347 




V^AREHOUSE 1 

Fig. 86. — Graphic Illustration of Processes in Cotton Manufacture. 

The greater cost of the modern weaving shed arises from 
the far superior manner in which it is fitted up. 

The great reduction in the cost of erecting the modern 



348 TEXTILES 

mill is further apparent when it is known that the average 
wages of the employees in the machine works have increased 
12J per cent., and the hours have been reduced 7| per 
cent. 

It has only been possible to do this by the introduction 
of labour-saving machinery of the highest type. 

The machine construction branch of the textile industry 
is now so well organized that even with the heavy duties 
which are imposed by foreign countries the greater part of 
the machinery used in all parts of the world is produced in 
England, and there does not appear to be any reason to 
fear that for a long time to come England will lose her 
supremacy in either the machine-making or the spinning 
or manufacturing branch of the textile industry. 

The whole of the textile industry and the businesses con- 
nected therewith are in a state of transition at the present 
time, wages having been increased to a large degree and hours 
considerably reduced. This makes it difficult to give anything 
definite in comparison with past years, but there is the 
certainty that, unless more mills are erected, the output will 
be much less than in 1914 ; how much, time alone can show. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE LINEN INDUSTRY HISTORICALLY AND COMMERCIALLY 
CONSIDERED 

The cultivation of the flax plant, the separation of the 
fibres from the straw, the preparing and spinning of these 
same fibres into yarns, and their subsequent manufacture 
into linen cloth form to-day no insignificant branch of the 
textile industry, employing, as it does, tens of thousands of 
persons in the various progressive sections from the sowing 
of the flax seed to ■ the distribution of the finished woven 
product. 

Earliest Eecords. 

The Biblical records testify that flax was cultivated, 
yarn spun, and linen fabrics woven in the patriarchal 
times. It is also interesting to know that the manufacture 
of fine linens is spoken of in all classical records, books, 
and writings from the earliest times. 

If the growth of flax, together with all the subsequent 
processes of preparation and manufacture into cloth, were 
considered from the point of antiquity alone, it would form 
an interesting volume, since most people manifest an 



350 TEXTILES 

intense interest in anything which can justly claim to have 
its foundation in prehistoric times. 

Flax. — The first mention in the sacred writings of flax 
by that name occurs in connection with the plagues of 
Egypt (Ex. ix. 31) : " And the flax and the barley were 
smitten, for the barley was in the ear and the flax was 
boiled." The virtuous woman is described by Solomon as 
one who " seeketh wool and flax and worketh it with her 
hands. . , . She layeth her hands to the spindle and her 
hands hold the distaff. . . . She maketh fine linen and 
selleth it " (Prov. xxxi. 13, 19, 24). 

Scriptural Records : Linen. — The first scriptural record of 
linen described by that name is found in Gen. xli. 42 : 
" And Pharaoh took off his ring from off his hand and put 
it upon Joseph's hand, and arrayed him in vestures of fine 
linen, and put a gold chain upon his neck." This was 
in 1715 B.C., when Pharaoh exalted Joseph to the second 
position in the kingdom. Though this is the first refer- 
ence to linen in the Scriptures, it is very evident that linen 
fabrics were made long before this period, since the 
reference is to fine linen, &n.di fine linen can only be manu- 
factured after many efibrts and long experience. The 
sackcloth which Jacob put on (Gen. xxxvii. 34), when 
Joseph's coat of many colours was brought to him, was in 
all probability made of coarse linen cloth. Some historians 
contend that coarse fabrics of flax were produced in the 
antediluvian age, and that the covering of Jabal's tents 
(Genesis iv. 20, 3875 b.c.) were made of some coarse 
flaxen or hempen material. 

Linen — Emblematic of Purity. — Wherever cleanliness and 
purity were required the chosen symbol among fabrics 



THE LINEN INDUSTEY 351 

was linen, and in this respect it stands unique among all 
textile fabrics. Moses, in enumerating to the people the 
articles which might be offered for the fitting and completing 
of the tabernacle, says : " And blue and purple and scarlet and 
fine linen and goat's hair " (Ex. xxv. 4). Later, when Aaron 
and his sons were set apart as priests unto the people, instruc- 
tions were given that Aaron's coat was to be embroidered in 
fine linen, and that his sons were to wear linen breeches. 
Further, whenever the Jewish priests entered in at the gates 
of the inner court of the sanctuary they were to be clothed with 
linen garments and no wool was to be upon them while they 
ministered within the gates. They were also to have linen 
bonnets upon their heads and linen breeches upon their loins 
during the ceremony, and were not to be girded with anything 
that causeth sweat (Ezek. xhv. 17, 1'8). St. John the Divine 
describes the seven angels as being clothed in pure white 
linen, and says : "For the fine linen is the righteousness 
of the saints;" and again: "The armies which were in 
heaven followed him upon white horses clothed in fine 
linen, white and clean." 

Evolution of the Linen Manufacture. 

Egypt — the Birthplace. — Historians generally agree that 
linen was first manufactured in Egypt. The flax plant 
was indigenous to the soil of Egypt, the climate and the 
Nile were favourable to its growth, and there appears to 
be no doubt as to its extensive cultivation in the earliest 
history of the country. It is an established fact that linen 
cloths were made in Egypt more than 4,000 years ago, 
specimens of the linen having been discovered in the land 
of the Pharaohs which were proved to be at least that 



352 TEXTILES 

age. Solomon had linen yarn brought out of Egypt, and 
the king's merchants received the linen yarn at a price 
(2 Chron. i. 16). 

As already intimated, many of the fabrics woven in those 
early times have been preserved unto the present day as a 
result of the practice, then common, of embalming the 
dead. The choice of linen for this purpose was due to 
the material being able to resist the development of animal 
life in a more marked degree than fabrics made from animal 
fibres, such as wool, which germinate animal life much 
sooner, and consequently would defeat the end they were 
intended to serve. 

Many of the linens thus ]3reserved were fine in texture, 
but " set " much closer in the warp than in the weft. This 
may be largely due to the method then practised of insert- 
ing the shuttle into the warp shed with the one hand and 
then receiving it at the opposite side by the other hand. 
Then, too, since there was no " lay " for beating up the 
weft, the operation had to be performed with the aid of a 
stick, which necessarily meant slow and tedious work, 
however skilful the weaver might be. Nevertheless, some 
few of the textures thus woven compare favourably with 
many modern productions. A specimen among these cloths 
in plain weave revealed as many as 90 threads per inch in 
the warp and 45 in the weft ; a second contained 150 
threads of warp with about 70 shots of weft per inch 
respectively, involving the use of yarns which exceeded 
100 leas of 300 yards each per lb. — a fine yarn and sett ! 
One specimen is recorded to have contained at least 250 
double threads per inch, with half the number of weft 
threads for the same length. The ancient tombs of Egypt 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 353 

reveal by pictures and other hieroglyphics the progressive 
stages through which the flax passed in those prehistoric 
times, and, singularly enough, the preparation of the fibre 
as then practised corresponds in many respects to the pre- 
sent method adopted, especially in Ireland. Some consider 
this an indication that the origin of the industry in the 
Emerald Isle was due to the migration of some Egyptians 
skilled in the art. There are many evidences to show that 
the Egyptians produced more yarn than their looms could 
weave and more cloth than the people themselves could 
consume, which, combined with the fact that they were not 
a commercial or maritime people, gave an opportunity to 
the Phoenician traders, who navigated the high seas for 
thirteen centuries to distribute their yarns and woven pro- 
ducts. Much of the latter was first delivered in Tyre, 
where the inhabitants dyed the fabrics in colours, for 
which they were famous, and afterwards the Phoenicians 
re-exported the goods to Persia, Arabia, Palestine, Greece, 
Italy, Spain and France, etc. 

Decline of Linen Manufacture in Egypt. — Eventually, as 
the years rolled on the great enterprise hitherto displayed by 
the Egyptians in the peaceful arts and hereditary skill in 
textile crafts began to wane and gradually decayed. 

Carthage, Babylon, and Greece. — With the advance of 
time, the renowned city of Carthage conducted the mari- 
time commerce of the world, and discharged the duties of 
factor in fine linens as well as other textile materials. 
These goods they sent westward into the countries of 
Europe, including Britain. In Babylon and the whole 
region of the Euphrates the cultivation of flax was largely 
carried on, and the manufacture of hnen was common in 

T. A A 



354 TEXTILES 

all the cities on the banks of the Tigris ; but this industry 
has long since become extinct in these countries. Greece 
had also a small share in the growth of flax and manu- 
facture of hnen, though she was never much noted in this 
respect. 

Italy — Eome. — It is but natural to expect that Imperial 
Eome, exercising a world-wide influence, should seek to 
introduce into her country such a peaceful and profitable 
art as linen manufacturing. In her earliest days of con- 
quest and supremacy she chiefly imported linens from the 
East. Subsequently she gave every encouragement to the 
manufacture of the finest linens in several parts of Italy. 
The most important step probably ever taken in this 
respect was when she formed guilds or colleges of the 
factories which were noted for the manufacture of the best 
qualities and varieties of linens. In these Imperial fac- 
tories all kinds of clothing were made for the Emperor's 
family and court, and also for the officers and soldiers of 
the army. The guilds were also useful in collecting 
knowledge pertaining to the weavers' craft and of dissemi- 
nating it by her legions throughout the whole of the Koman 
Empire. 

Spain. — After the withdrawal of the Koman soldiers from 
Spain the Moors overran the country, yet it is recorded 
that they manufactured linens on an extensive scale and 
exported large quantities. 

Germany and Austria. — Ever since the dawn of the seventh 
century the linen trade has had a home in Germany. It 
is one of its oldest branches of industry, and formerly 
ranked amongst its most important. In 1169 the Hanse 
towns of Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bremen formed a league 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 355 

to protect their trade and commerce, of which linen pro- 
ducts formed the most important section. The Hanseatic 
League existed for several centuries, during which time it 
distributed the linen manufactures of Germany throughout 
the chief centres of Europe. In sympathy with German 
manufacture, Austrian linens date from an early period. 

France. — There was an extensive production of linens in 
Gaul at the time of the Eoman domination of that country, 
and, notwithstanding all the vicissitudes of political fortune 
and revolution, the people have always carried on a con- 
siderable trade in the most dehcate and finest of linens and 
other textile fabrics. This branch of the trade received its 
greatest check immediately following the Kevocation of 
the Edict of Nantes, 1685, when the persecution of the 
Protestants became so acute that fully 600,000 skilled 
artisans, chiefly persons engaged in the textile trades, were 
obliged to leave their native land and seek refuge on other 
shores. About 70,000 of these refugees found a home in 
Great Britain or Ireland, and just as the woollen trade of 
Great Britain was materially assisted by the influx of these 
skilled artificers, so the linen trade of Ireland received its 
greatest impetus by their advent. 

Various European Countries. — Other European countries, 
notably Holland and Belgium, carried on a large and 
important trade in linen for an extensive period. Belgium 
has always paid great attention to the cultivation of flax, 
and as far back as the tenth century she began to be famous 
for the manufacture of linen goods. On a somewhat smaller 
scale the flax plant was cultivated and linen cloth manu- 
factured in other countries, notably Portugal, Denmark, 
Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and Eussia. 

A A 2 



356 TEXTILES 

United States of America. — The United States of America 
grows much flax, but its manufacture is, and always has 
been, comparatively small. To-day she is one of the best 
customers of Irish-made linens. 

Great Britain and Ireland. 

No historical description of the flax industry would be 
complete, however brief, unless some reference were made 
to Ireland, where to-day, and for at least seventy years, the 
production of flax yarns and manufacture of linens have 
stood out pre-eminently. Of necessity this industry in 
Ireland is inseparably linked to that of England and 
Scotland. In the traditional records of the " Four 
Masters " of the fifth century reference is made to " the 
weaves," " the flax scutching stick," " the distaff," etc. ; the 
inference is left to the reader. The laws of the judges in 
Ireland, known as the ancient Brehon laws, required the 
farmers to learn the cultivation of flax. 

The earliest authentic accounts of Irish linen manufacture 
date from the eleventh century, but the cloth made was only 
for home consumption, for the first exports occur in 1272, 
when it is recorded that Irish linen was used at Winchester. 
Generally speaking, England and Scotland acquired the art 
of linen manufacturing before Ireland. In 1253 Henry III. 
patronized English linens by ordering 1,000 ells for his 
wardrobe at Westminster. In the reign of Eichard II. and 
the year 1382 a company of linen weavers, chiefly from 
the Netherlands, was established in London. But the 
climate and soil of Ireland were better adapted to the 
cultivation and growth of flax than those of Great Britain, 
and consequently she supplied the sister island with the 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 357 

raw material. Later, about the middle of the seventeenth 
century, we learn that Ireland produced more flax and spun 
more yarn than she could weave, and as a consequence 
" The merchants of Manchester bought ' lynne yarne ' from 
the Irish in great quantities, and after weaving it into cloth 
returned it to Ireland for sale." 

About the year 1670 the English Government sought by 
every means in her power to encourage the linen industry 
of Ireland in its entirety. It was not, however, until the 
seventeenth century was well advanced that the Irish linen 
trade attained any commercial importance. Then, owing 
largely to the Ulster colonists from Scotland, and later, the 
influx of the skilled French refugees, especially one — Louis 
Crommelin, a wealthy Huguenot, who was induced to settle at 
Lisburn, near Belfast— the hnen industry of Ireland made 
rapid progress. Crommelin, on the Revocation of the Edict 
of Nantes, fled first into Holland, where he became personally 
acquainted with Wilham, Prince of Orange, afterwards WilHam 
III. of England, by whose persuasion he was subsequently 
induced to settle in Ireland. Here he spared no personal 
expense in introducing improvements for developing the Hnen 
industry, notably in regard to the spinning wheel and the 
loom, and involved himself in an expenditure of £10,000. 
For these valuable services he received a grant of £800 per 
annum, but owing to the death of his Royal patron, Wilham 
III., the grant ceased after the second year. In the year 1712 
a Royal Commission was appointed to enquire into the Irisli 
hnen trade, and reported that " Louis Crommelin and the 
Huguenot colony have been largely instrumental in im- 
proving and propagating the flaxen manufactures in the 
north of Ireland, and the perfection to which the same is 



od6 



TEXTILES 




THE LINEN INDUSTRY 359 

brought in that part of the country is largely owing to the 
skill and industry of the said Crommelin." Crommelin's 
name, together with that of Philip de Gerard, the inventor 
of the wet-spinning process, is being still further per- 
petuated on panels in a stained-glass window devoted to 
the Textile Industries Department in the College of Technology, 
Belfast. 

Linen Board of Ireland. — In 1711 the Enghsh ParUament 
created and endowed a Board of Trustees of linen and 
hempen manufacturers of Ireland to further encourage and 
develop the linen industry. During its existence the Board 
expended a sum of nearly £1,750,000 sterling from Imperial 
taxation for this purpose and the erection of a Linen Hall 
in Dublin. Upon the dissolution of the Board in 1828, 
Ireland had established her proud position in the world as 
an important linen manufacturing centre, and was fast 
displacing in the markets of the world the products of other 
linen-producing countries. 

Sealing of Linens. — Among the many useful regulations 
imposed by the Linen Board was the introduction of 
an Official Seal for marking ichite linens before being 
exposed for sale, which resulted in a much-improved and 
superior-woven fabric. Guaranteeing as it did correctness 
of length and perfection of make, it inspired public confidence 
in all buyers of Irish linens. Subsequently the regulation 
stamp was extended to hrotrn linens also with equally 
beneficial results. (For illustration see Fig. 87.) 

Progress in Irish Linens. — By the year 1730 the trade 
had made such progress that in one month alone Ireland 
sent to the metropolis three times the length received by 
London from the whole of Holland ; and so much did the 



360 TEXTILES 

linen trade of Ireland prosper that foreign manufacturers 
of linens became greatly alarmed. 

In 1689, when William III. ascended the throne, the 
export of Irish linens amounted to £12,000 ; in 1701 the 
amount reached £14,120 ; the fifth decade of the same 
century saw the total at £365,838 12s. Sd., so that in less 
than half a century the trade increased 250 per cent. If to 
this be added the export value of linen yarns for the same 
year the total value of linen ex]3orts reached half a million 
sterling. 

In 1742 an import duty of 2s. lOd. per web was imposed 
on all foreign linens, and a bounty of Id. per yard, later 
increased to 5d. per yard, on all British and Irish linens 
exported exceeding Is. per yard encouraged the production 
of the finer fabrics. 

Checks and Progress. — The linen trade of Ireland was not, 
however, of uninterrupted progress, for in the year 1773 
about 30,000 people emigrated to America from Ulster alone, 
owing largely to trade being so bad. Yet statistics record 
that in the year 1784 the linen exports reached nearly 
25 million yards, equal in value to about £1,250,000 and 
twelve years later the amount was practically double in 
quantity and value. At this time the finest linen cambrics 
sold at 25 guineas a web, equal to about one guinea per yard. 

Modes o£ Exchange and Value : Eighteenth Century. — ^At 
this juncture it may be interesting to briefly consider values 
and methods of exchange of the period. In the year 1776 
brown hnens sold at lO^d. to lid!, per yard for 8°° (forty ends 
per inch). The weaver sold his web to a draper who usually 
possessed a bleach green ; the cost of bleaching was from 3s. 
to 3s. 2d. per web, or 90s. to £5 per thirty pieces. When fully 
bleached the draper sent his material to London, the Linen 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 361 

Hall at Dublin, or to Chester. In London seven months' 
credit was given, in Dublin two to three months, and cash 
when the fabrics were sold personally and at all the local fairs 
(see Fig. 88). Spinners were paid Sd. to id. and weavers lOd. 
to Is. 4:d. per day. The setts ranged from 8°° to 24°°, and the 
prices paid for weaving were 8°°, 2^d. ; 10°°, 3|(Z. ; 13°°, 3|c^. ; 
16°°, U. ; 18°°, lOld. ; and 24°°, 1.9. 1\d. per yard. The 
flax spinners were frequently engaged by the drapers at 10s. 
to 12s. per quarter, including board and lodging. They had 
to guarantee to turn off from five to eight hanks per week ; 
usually an average spinner could spin six hanks (3,600 yards 
per hank) of 72's lea, i.e., 72 X 300 = 21,600 yards per lb. 
The value of this yarn for an 18°° sett was worth approximately 
M. per hank, 4s. per lb., or lis. Id. per bundle. Belfast had 
two Mnen halls in which she conducted her exchanges, viz., 
the Brown Linen Hall in Donegall Street, originally built by 
Lord Donegall, now dismantled, and the White Linen Hall, 
originally built by subscription in Donegall Square, but now 
replaced by the magnificent City Hall. 

Flax Cultivation, Harvesting, and Preparation. — The flax 
plant is an annual and must, therefore, be cultivated ; its 
natural tendency is to produce seed which may be used for 
subsequent sowing or harvested for feeding purposes only, 
but the market requires it chiefly for the fibre. The seed of 
this plant, for fibre purposes, must, therefore, be carefully 
selected and sown sufficiently profuse to ensure that the plant 
will grow up solitary, erect, and elegant in appearance, each 
piece terminating in a blue or white flower, which eventually 
develops into fruit bolls containing ten seeds. 

The flax plant is made up of three parts : the skin, the 
fibres, and the pith or wood. 

The fibres are found in concentric layers external to the pith 



362 TEXTILES 

or wood, with which they are held in aggregate bundles by 
an adhesive or gummy substance — more correctly described as 
Sipectinous compound — which may subsequently be dissolved 
by a process denominated retting, after which the fibre readily 
peels of? if subjected to a beating process known as scutching. 

The scutched flax is the raw material to the fiax spinner. 
In this natural form it appears to be very long in fibre, but 
this length is only artificial, because the unit fibres are only 
about l-g- to 2 inches long. They are held together in their 
natural and commercial state by the same pectinous compound 
which binds the fibres to the stem of the plant. 

The unit or ultimate flax fibre is fine and strong, inelastic, 
but most durable. It is capable of being spun into a wide 
range of yarn numbers and sorts. Woven or knitted fabrics 
made from flax yarns are characterized by their propensity 
to absorb and readily give off moisture. They possess hygienic 
properties par excellence, and should consequently be fre- 
quently worn next to the skin. They are easy to wash and 
their characteristic clean appearance is always an inspiration. 

The flax plant will grow in almost any climate and soil. 
The soil must be well prepared by ploughing and harrowing 
until a very fine tilth is acquired. A temperate and equable 
climate, free from heavy rains, frost or snow, is usually con- 
sidered the most suitable for the cultivation of flax. In many 
countries the flax-growing districts are significantly adjacent 
to the sea. 

In the British Isles the flax seed is sown from about April 1st 
to May 16th. The crop is usually ready for pulling in about 
twelve or thirteen weeks from the date of sowing. If there 
are many weeds in the growing crop they should always be 
pulled out by hand, when the young plants are 2, 3 or 4 inches 
high, because a flax crop must always be clean. 



THE LINEN INDUSTEY 363 

The young plants begin to bloom towards tlie end of June 
in the British Isles, and then the whole crop presents a mass 
of beautiful blue flowers. During the flowering period the 
plants shoot up rapidly, and add about 1 inch to their height 
every day. As soon as the flowers begin to fall the plant 
ceases to grow in length, but the seed bolls make their appear- 
ance and continue developing until they are globular in shape. 
At first the seed is milky and white-looking, but gradually it 
solidifies and passes from white through pale green to a 
brownish tint, at which period the flax is ready for pulling. 

From time immemorial it has been the practice to pull flax 
up by the root and by hand, which, though simple and easy 
to learn, is slow and expensive. 

At the present time numerous flax-pulling machines have 
been introduced ; these are still in their experimental stage, 
but evidences are not wanting that in some instances the 
fundamental principles of mechanism have been established 
and only improvements in details await solution. 

If the flax plants have been pulled for the twofold purpose 
of saving the seed for subsequent sowings or feeding purposes, 
in addition to securing its fibre, then the flax straw must be 
dried and de-seeded before anything further can be done to 
remove the flax fibre from the plant. 

The removal of the fibres of the flax plant involves three 
distinct operations : (1) Retting, (2) drying, and (3) scutching. 

The object of retting is to decompose by fermentation the 
fectinous compounds which bind the fibres to the stem. 
There are numerous methods of retting adopted at the present 
time ; these include steeping the flax straw in ponds of 
stagnant water or in sluggish rivers, in concrete or wooden 
tanks. The Lys at Courtrai is a typical example of such a 
river. Retting is sometimes done in open fields by exposing the 



364 TEXTILES. 

flax to the dew, rain, snow, cold and lieat, all of whicli factors 
combine to loosen the fibre from the stem. This is denominated 
" dew retting,'' and the process occupies about six weeks. 

Pond retting requires from eight to sixteen days, according 
to the softness and temperature of the water. Warm water 
retting in tanks usually occupies from five to seven days. 

When the flax is judged to be sufficiently retted it is taken 
out of the water and evenly spread or gaited in the fields until 
it is thoroughly dry. The dry retted flax is next, and finally, 
subjected to an operation technically denominated scutching. 
This operation is intended to break the pith or wooden matter 
in the straw by passing it between a series of fluted rollers. 
Subsequently the bruised straw is subjected to the beating 
action of a series of rotating wooden blades securely mounted 
on a steel shaft, which may be driven by hand, water or any 
form of mechanical power. 

The yield of scutched flax to dry retted straw varies very 
much, and this may be due to one or many causes. The 
following are a few typical yields selected from practice : — 

(1) Fresh pulled flax straw per statute acre, 4 to 5 tons ; 
dry retted flax straw per statute acre, 25 to 30 cwt. ; average 
yield of scutched flax per statute acre, 32 to 36 stones. 

(2) Six hundred pounds of dry retted straw yielded 120 lbs. 
of scutched flax, 30 lbs of re-scutched tow. 

(3) A farmer in Ireland in 1919 sowed 2 bushels of flax seed, 
from which he secured 47 stones of scutched flax, which was 
graded by the Government graders as No. 2 quality. 

(4) The average pre-war return in Ireland was approxi- 
mately 30 stones per statute acre. 

Spinning and Weaving by Machinery. — The introduction 
of spinning and weaving by power, though difficult at first, 
gradually displaced to a considerable extent the hand method. 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 




366 



TEXTILES 



and also centralised the work in mills and factories. The 
spinning of flax by machinery was attempted in Great 
Britain fully a decade previous to any similar experiment 
in Ireland, notwithstanding that the latter country had 
acquired a considerable reputation for flax spinning. At 




Fig. 89. — Loading flax. 
From a ijhutograpli by A. F. Barker. 

first it was only possible to produce by machinery the 
coarser and lower dry spun numbers of yarn. The first 
machines for this purpose were started in Cork, and later 
at Ballymena and Crumlin, in county Antrim, about the 
year 1787. The Irish Linen Board, which at that time 
was still in existence, sought to encourage the enterprise 



THE LINEN INUUSTET 



S67 



by offering 30s. per spindle to the owners of all mills 
who introduced the power method, and by the year 1816 
there were 6,369 spindles at work. The hand -spinning 
method for the finer yarns would, in all probability, have 
continued to this day but for the discovery of the wet- 




FlG. 90.— lietting flax : putting tiax in dam. 
From a pJwtograph by A. F. Barker. 

spinning process by Philip de Gerard, of France, about 
the year 1826. . This process was subsequently and success- 
fully applied by Marshalls of Leeds, Baxter of Dundee, 
Mulholland of Belfast, and Murland of Castlewellan. In 
the year 1828 Messrs. Murland started the enterjjrise, and 
in the year following Messrs. Mulholland, now the York 



368 



TEXTILES 



Street Flax Spinning Mills, Belfast, adopted the new pro- 
cess, whereby it became possible, with the use of hot water, 
to soften the gummy matter which holds the flax fibres 
together, and reduce them to their ultimate length and 
fineness, and so to draw and spin them into yarn of a 




JFlG. 91. — Eetting flax : taking flax out of dam after, say, ten da3^s. 
From a photograph hy A . F. Barker. 

much greater length and fineness than by the dry-spinning 
process. Undoubtedly the discovery and practical applica- 
tion of same thoroughly revolutionised the spinning, and 
eventually exerted an immense influence over the weaving, 
by causing a greater demand for power looms. Ireland 
now began more rapidly than ever to acquire the lead over 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 



369 



foreign linen-producing countries in the markets of the 
world ; and Belfast, the centre of the Irish linen trade, not 
only maintained, but increased her proud position among 
the manufacturing centres, whilst to-day she ranks as both 




Fig. 92. — Flax drying. — Stack after retting. 
From a photograph hy A. F. Barker. 

the industrial capital of Ireland and the metropolis of the 
world's linen industrial centres. 

Statistics do not show any considerable adoption of power 
looms prior to 1850, but the following abbreviated table 
will give some idea of the development in the spinning and 
weaving of linen throughout the country since the advent 
of machinery ; — 

T B B 



370 



TEXT^ILES 





Number of Spindles in 


Number of Power 


Year. 


Ireland. 


Looms. 


1841 


250,000 


_ 


1850 


326,000 


58 


1856 


567,980 


1,871 


1866 


770,814 


10,804 


1875 


924,817 


20,152 


1900 


843,934 


32,245 


1906 


869,146 


34,723 


1907 


909,999 


35,386 


1908 


913,423 


35,386 


Feb., 1910 


939,732 


35,622 



The following comparative latest pre-war official returns of 
spindles and power looms engaged in the linen industry in 
the United Kingdom and on the Continent will no doubt 
be interesting : — 





Number of 


Number of Power 






Spindles. 


Looms. 


Ireland 




939,732 


35,622 


France 






545,497 


18,083 


Scotland . 






160,085 


17,185 


Germany . 






325,000 


7,557 


Russia 






300,000 


7,312 


England and Wales 






49,941 


4,424 


Italy . 






177,000 


3,500 


Belgium . 






1 280,000 


3,400 


Austria-Hungary 






294,000 


3,357 


Holland 






8,000 


1,200 


Spain 






— ■ 


1,000 


Norway and Sweden 






— 


40() 


2 Total for Europe 


1,829,497 


43,815 


, , United Kingdom 


1,120,025 


56,995 



2 Exclusive of the U. K. 



1 Flax and hemp. 

The volume of linen yarn exported from the United 
Kingdom in 1906 reached the enormous total of 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 



371 



14,975,500 lbs., bearing a monetary value of £1,008,831. 
In the year 1840 the respective totals were 28,734,212 lbs. 
and £1,976,830, from which date there has been a gradual 




Fig. 93. — Flax spreading. 
From a photograph hy A. F. Barker. 

decline as far as yarn exported was concerned, but an 
ever-increasing demand for home productions. The average 
annual imports of linen yarn into the United Kingdom 

B li 2 



372 



TEXTn.ES 



during the last decade reached 26,311,329 lbs. of declared 
value £933,426. These yarns are chiefly of the lower 
numbers. The linen goods of all kinds exported for the year 
1906 amounted in value to £5,326,744, whilst the total value 
of linen j^arns, threads, and piece goods reached £6,341,216. 




Fig. i)-k. — Inside an Irish tScutcJuug Mill. 
From a photor/raj'ih hy A. F. Barker. 

These summarised Board of Trade returns, together 
with the large amount of linen used for home consump- 
tion, added to the fact that nearly 300,000 people in Great 
Britain and Ireland are exclusively engaged in the growth 
of flax, the preparation and spinning of long vegetable fibres 



THE LINEN INDUSTRY 



373 



(flax, hemp, and jute), the manufacture and merchanting 
of Hnen yarns and fabrics, will afford some idea of the com- 
mercial importance to which this industry has now attained. 
Linen Varieties. — The varieties of fabrics made from flax 
in respect to structure, design, quality, and finish is much 




ElG. 95. —Inside an Irish Scutching Mill. 
From a pliotograph by A. F. Barker. 

greater to-day than formerly. These include plains, ducks, 
lioUands, lawns, sheer lawns, cambrics, handkerchiefs 
dress linens, and unions in an ever-increasing novelty, 
vestings, glass cloths, drills and diapers, huckabacks, honey- 
comb and Turkish towels, d'oyleys, napkins, and damasks. 
The world-renowned cambrics were first made at Cambrai, 



374 TEXTILES 

in France, and the same country was famous for the 
initiation and manufacture of lawns, while the town of 
Ypres, in Belgium, became noted for the manufacture of 
linen known as diaper — cloth de Ypres — and " holland " 
received its name through having been first manufactured 
by the Dutch settlers in Ireland. Napkins were introduced 
for wiping the hands, being all the more necessary owing 
to the lack of knives and forks at the time. For long 
periods these and other standard fabrics have been and 
probably will continue to be made, but the time has gone 
when the demand runs on one particular make or type 
of cloth to the exclusion of every other, which necessarily 
involves that the manufacturer who would succeed must 
learn to adapt himself to modern ideas and ever-changing 
fashions. No linen or other manufacturer can afford to 
stand still ; to do so would be to drop out. In conclusion 
every manufacturing industry which is to obtain and main- 
tain a position in the commercial world worthy of the 
name must seek to educate its workpeople by giving them 
a progressive course of instruction in the scientific and 
technical principles underlying their trade ; for success now 
depends on scientific knowledge, research, and an intimate 
acquaintance with the inventions, the experiments, the 
successes and the failures of others ; and whether our nation 
does or does not provide every facility in this direction, 
we may rest assured that textile production will continue 
its progressive course, and will be led by those who have 
made themselves capable of leading by adapted thought 
and knowledge, combined with enlightened energy, which 
directs its force to meet the vast and varied requirements 
of the world. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

REGENT DEVELOPMENTS AND THE FUTURE OF THE TEXTILE 
INDUSTRIES 

Although nearly all the principles employed in textile 
maciiinery were is use, say, by 1850, still with what may 
be termed the refined organization of the twentieth century 
there have been, and apparently there will always be, oppor- 
tunities for the improvement in so-called " details," which 
details are nevertheless so important that the status of the 
whole industry may depend upon them. 

(1) Buildings. — Many improvements are to be noted in 
modern mill buildings when compared with similar buildings 
of, say, twenty-five years ago. With the materials best 
available— brick, stone or reinforced concrete — mills are now 
designed to give ideal conditions for working. The walls may 
be readily cleaned, and the floors are not only designed for 
cleanliness, but also to fatigue the workers as little as possible 
and to deaden noise. Roofs are so designed that, while 
perfectly stable, a maximum of light — other than direct sun- 
light — is obtained. The spans are so designed that few pillars 
are necessary, but a practically open space provided, into which 
the machinery may be planned at will. In storied buildings 
it is now possible to obtain such strength combined with light 
structure that the rooms may be considered as almost open to 
the fight all round, and yet such a mill, four or five stories 
high, will carry with safety a roof -tank holding tons of water. 



376 TEXTILES 

(2) Power, etc., Equipment. — The indirect advantages of 
electric driving are such that not only are almost all new mills 
electrically driven, but many old mills are being electrified. 
The question of " unit " or " group " driving is usually 
decided according to the particular machinery to be driven 
In some few smaller mills, suction gas plants are proving 
satisfactory. Almost without exception hot water or steam, 
for heating purposes or for use in certain processes, is a 
necessity. The suction gas plant will provide about 40 per 
cent, of the steam required for heating weaving sheds, but 
in electrically driven mills hot water or steam must be 
independently provided. 

A good water supply is almost invariably required, and 
if the water is hard some softening system must be adopted. 
The Permutit process seems to dominate for this purpose. 

Improvements in incandescent electric globes have been so 
marked that it would seem that electric lighting is more than 
holding its own. There is still usually room for improvement 
in the arrangement and distribution of light in most buildingvS — 
intensity of light is only half the problem. 

In England the atmosphere is correct for spinning during 
the major part of the year, but heat and moisture are so 
important that in both cotton and fine wool spinning it is 
found advantageous to control the atmosphere throughout 
the year. The introduction of ozone into the air is still under 
trial, but in many mills the controlled atmosphere is found 
by the workers to be actually refreshing and not to lead to 
enervation later. The vexed questions of temperature and 
moisture in dealing with certain materials are still matters 
of debate when the health of the operative, as well as the 
successful working of the material, is taken into account. 



FUTUEE OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTEIES 377 

(3) Details of Arrangement.— Material is being more and 
more automatically controlled. Thus, pneumatic conveyors 
may be arranged to carry wool efficiently for, say, 1,000 feet. 
Such conveyors should be so arranged that they may be 
thoroughly cleaned before changing from one blend (say black) 
to another blend (say white). For the conveyance of heavy 
articles—" workers " from the " card " for grinding, loom 
beams from the dressing-room to any loom, etc. — overhead 
rails are now almost invariably introduced. 

(4) Improvements in Special Machines. — Refinements in 
gilling, to take the place of the Continental intersecting gill- 
box, have been introduced by Messrs. Prince, Smith & Son, 
whose O.P.S. gill-box gives excellent control over short 
material. Automatic doffing machines for flyer and cap 
frames are still being evolved and, with the suppression of the 
" half-timer," will soon be well-nigh universal. In warping 
and dressing the warpers' beam system is ousting all other 
systems. In weaving no advances are to be noted, possibly 
owing to the fashion for plain fabrics. No special methods of 
designing have made good, but a revival of the figured trade 
might lead to further endeavours in this direction. 

In finishing the Moser raising machine is now designed to 
raise or bind-in the pile developed. 

(5) Automatic Machines. — There has been a marked ten- 
dency to introduce automatic machinery in both the cotton 
and wool industries. Not only are automatic looms in 
evidence, but also automatic drawers-in, automatic tyers-in, 
and automatic lease-pickers are in daily use. Automatic 
machinery is often slowly run, and sometimes is Tun for hours 
without any attendants, thus economizing production. 

(6) Process Improvements. — For special work certain 



378 TEXTILES 

improvements are to be noted. For fine wool yarns the 
sorting room is now arranged for double sorting. Perhaps the 
most interesting development to be noted is the melanging of 
Botany tops to produce the finest possible wool mixture 
(melange) yarns. The Germans led in this in 1914, and unless 
other manufacturers follow this lead they will be left behind 
in efficiency of production — there is no comparison between 
ordinary fibre mixtures and top-tinted " melange " styles 
from the point of view of " levelness." 

(7) Testing and Research. — Most mills are now developing 
testing laboratories, and some of the largest factories private 
research laboratories also. Generally speaking, however, each 
section of an industry — the Fine Cotton Spinners, for example — 
is developing a federation research laboratory, or the who'e 
industry — the woollen and worsted, for example — is uniting 
for this purpose. Research will always find a place in the 
technical universities, especially when based upon the funda- 
mental sciences, but there seems to be a useful field for such 
an association as the British Research Association for the 
Woollen and Worsted Industries, and also for the closely allied 
Cotton and Silk Research Associations. The cotton industry 
has also its Cotton Growing Association, which, it is hoped, will 
serve to promote the growing of cotton in the British colonies. 

(8) Scientific Management. — The more careful study of the 
worker along with his or her physical, moral, and sesthetical 
surroundings, is a feature in the developments of the past ten 
years to be specially noted. Machines are now more carefully 
adjusted to the workers ; the activity of the work is so directed 
that the greatest production with the least exertion is ensured ; 
and hours of labour are carefully considered. Welfare work 
is making much progress and, when ofiered in the right spirit 



FUTUEE OF THE TEXTILE INDUSTRIES 379 

and accepted in the right spirit, tends materially towards 
efi&ciencj in the broadest sense of the term. Industrial 
councils, established under the Whitley Act, are leading to 
the better psychological understanding of employees by the 
employers and, conversely, of the employers by the employees. 
Ultimately it may be possible to so raise the status of the mill 
workers that he or she may be regarded with envy rather 
than looked down upon as an outcast from society ; and not 
the least indication of a move in this direction is the improve- 
ment in women's dress — white shoes and stockings and well- 
cut, nicely coloured dresses are already in evidence in many 
factories, and are by no means to be condemned. Men so far 
are not showing such an advance in their attire and status as 
are women. 

(9) Industrial Economics. — The complexities prevailing 
in the industrial world have been much in evidence throughout 
the war, and especially during the post-war period. To the 
outsider most of the principles of our economics seem to have 
been brought into question, but with the development of such 
an association as the Workers' Educational Association and the 
better education of the controllers of industry in our technical 
universities, it seems likely that the fundamentals of industrial 
efficiency and effectiveness may ultimately be more fully 
understood and acted on. A rise in wages was obviously 
long overdue, but the maintenance of anything approximating 
to the present level will by no means be an easy matter unless 
employer and employee alike realize that efficiency is the 
key to success. And this efficiency is now dependent upon 
something quite outside ordinary competition. From any 
given material nothing but the best result will serve ; and to 
attain this, science and technology must be made the hand- 



380 TEXTILES 

maidens of industry. France and Germany already know 
how to ensure this. The Anglo-Saxon, being more practical, 
has placed his faith in " driving force " ; but he is learning 
better, and it may be that by his efficiently organized universi- 
ties and technical colleges he may ultimately learn how to 
introduce " scientific method " into his activities without 
losing his " driving force." The future is to those peoples 
who consider their work worthy of careful thought and patient 
study. 



INDEX 



A. 



Aniline black, 77 

Animal fibres, method of pre- 
paring, 131 

Arrangement of equipment, 377 

Artificial silk, 66—69 

,, ,, dyeing properties 

of, 69 

Australian wool, 22 

Automatic machines, 176, 177, 
179, 377 

Average weaving, 171 — 173 

B. 

Backed and double cloths, 201 
Backwasher, 148 
Beating-up, 186 
Bengal silk, 319, 320 
Bleaching of cotton, 64 
"BoilmgofE" silk, 82 
Boxing mechanism, 188 
Brushing and raising, 223 
Buildings, 375 



C. 



Calculations, 230—247 

„ spinning and 

weaving, 244 



Calendering, 225 

Canton silk, 320, 321 

Carder, 152—157 

Carding, 10 

Card rollers, speed of, 154 

Cap fi-ame, 12, 109 

Cape wool, 26 

Carpet industry, 283—291 
,, ,, location of, 

2.0 
structure, 285—289 

Chemical reagents on the tex- 
tile fibres, 61 

China grass or Ramie spinning, 

■ 138 

China silk, 323—329 

Colonial and foreign wool, im- 
portations of, opp. page 1 

Colour, 211—214 

,, and designing, 195 — 

211 
,, matching, 89, 90 

Comb, Noble, 159—167 

Combers of wool, 260 

Combing, 11 

Conditioning, 225 

Cone drawing-box, 168 

Cotton dyeing, 85—87 

„ fabrics, finishing of, 227 
gm, 140 

growing industry, 41 — 
47 



382 



INDEX 



Cotton industry, the, 333—348 
., ,, cost and pro- 

duction, 336 
,, ,, improvements 

in, 339—342 
,, ,, plan of mill, 

345 
„ ,, wages, 337 

,, mercerised, 62 — 66 
,, processes, graphic illus- 
trations of, 347 
,, scrutcher, 145, 146 
„ staples and fibres, 42 — 

45 
„ table of spindles and 
quantity of cotton 
iised, 334 
Crabbing, 219 
Crepon effects on union cloth, 

65 
" Croissiire " systems, 300 — 

302 
Cropping or cutting, 223 

D. 

Designing and colouring, 
195—215 
figure, 214, 215 
Developments, recent, 375 — 

380 
Dobby loom, 183, 193 
Drawing-box, cone, 168 

French, 169 
,, open, 167 

Dress goods, 273—282 

„ „ finishing processes 

for. 281 
„ ,, industry, location 

of. 276 



Dresser, the silk and flax, 

157—159 
Dryer, the wool, 145 
Drying and tentering after 

finishing, 222 
Dyeing of artificial silk, 69, 89 
blacks, 84 
cotton, 85—87 
loose wool, 83 
mercerised cotton, 

64 
piece, 84 
silk, 88, 89 
slubbing, 83 
textile materials, 

70—91 
union clotlis, 87, 

88 
woaded colours, 84 
wool, 82—85 
yarn, 84 
Dyeing, preliminary processes 
of, 81 
„ water used in, 79, 
80 
Dyers, 260 

Dyes, fastness of, 90, 91 
Dyestuffs, 72-78 



Economics, industrial, 379 
Electric Jacquard, 16 
Evolution of linen industry, 
351 
,. sheep, 21 

,, textile indus- 

tries, 4 
Exports of British wool^ 



INDEX 



383 



r. 

Factory system, development 

of, 14, 15 
Felt fabrics, 2 

Fibres, chemical and physical 
properties of, 55 — 61 
,, vegetable, 49 — 52 
,, ,. diameter of, 

53 
Figure designing, 214, 215 
Filling cloths, 225 
Finishers, 260 
Finishing, cotton, 227 

,, general notes on, 

227—229 
linen, 227 
,, linings, 227 

,, principles of, 216 — 

229 
„ processes and ma- 

chinery for, 218 — 
226 
silk, 227 

woollen cloth, 227 
,, worsted cloth, 227 

Flax, 350 

,, cultivation, harvesting, 
and preparation of, 
361—364 
,, growing industry, 47, 

48 
,, spinning and weaving, 
364. 373 
Fireprooflng, 226 
Frames, cap, 12. 109 
ring, 12, 107 
water, 8, 104 
,, drawing-box, 169 
gill-box, 150 



G. 

Gauze fabrics, 201, 205—208 
Gill -box, French, 150 

,, preparing, 148—152 
Gin, the cotton, 140 
Group-unit weaving, 173 — 180 



H. 

Hairs, animal, 25 — 29 
,, vegetable, 48 — 55 



Importation of alpaca, vicuna, 
and llama 
into U.K., 
39 
,, American and 

European 
wools, 40 
,, colonial and 

foreign wools 
into the 
U.K., o^jp. 
page 1 
,, mohair into 

U.K., 39 
„ wool into U.K., 

36, 37 
Improvements or develop- 
ments, 377—379 
Ingrain dyes, 78 
Interfacings, 198—208 
Inventions, 1 — 16 
Inventors, 1 — 16 



384 



INDEX 



Jagquard loom, 183, 193 
Japan silks, 321—323 



K. 



Kashmir silks, 318 



Letting-off motion, 188 
Linen industry, 349 — 374 
, , manuf acttire, e v o 1 u tion 
of, 351— 
353 
„ „ decline of, 

353 
,, producing countries, 353 

359 
,, sealing of, 359 
„ varieties of, 373, 374 
Linings, 273—282 
Lists referring to cotton indus- 
try, 334 — 
338, 345— 
347 
„ „ linen indus- 

try, 370 
„ ,, silk industry, 

295, 296, 
324—327 
„ „ wool indus- 

try, 261— 
272 
Location of carpet industry, 
290 
„ dress goods in- 

dustry. 276 



Location of woollen indus- 
try, 249 
„ worsted indus- 

try, 357 

Long fibre spinning, 94 — 112 



M. 



Materials, use of, in design, 

196—198 
Melanges, 378 
Melton cloth, 254 
Mending, knotting and burling, 

218 
Merchants, 263 
Metric system, 243 
Milling, 219 
Mordants, 71 
Mule frame, 117 

„ spinning, 114 — 123 
Mimgo, 250 

N. 

Native reels (silks), 327 
New Zealand avooI, 24 
Noils, 31 

0. 

Open drawing, 167 

Order of processes in woollen 

manufacture, 250 
Ordinary cloth structure.. 203 

P. 

Para red, 78 
Picking, 180 



INDEX 



385 



Plush or pile fabrics, 204—211 

Point paper, uses of, 208 — 211 

Power, equipment, etc., 376 

Pressing, 224 

Primuline red, 78 

Progress of Irish linens, 359- 

K. 

Ramie manufacture, 138 

Ee-exported colonial and for- 
eign wools from U.K., 38 

Ee-reels (silks)," 325 

Research, 378 

Resultant counts of yarn, 238 — 
241, 243 

Retting, 363 

Rib, warp and weft structures, 
203 

Ring frame, 12, 107 

Roller draft, 98—112 

S. 

ScHREiNER finish, 225 
Scientific management, 378 
Scouring, 218 

,, machines, 140 — 144 

Scrutcher, the cotton, 145 — 148 

the flax, 148 
Sealing of linens, 359 
Sett counting, 237 
Sets of woollen machinery, 250 
,, worsted machinery, 263 
Shedding, 180, 181 
Shoddy, mmigo, and extract, 31 
Shuttling mechanism, 181 
Silk, artificial, 66—69 

„ Bengal, 319 

,, Cantons, 320 



Silk, China, 323—329 
,, classification of, 324 — 332 
,, Duppion's, 329 
,, French and Italian, 316 — 

318 
,, growing industry, 34 — 41 
,, Kashmir, 318 
., preparation of, 135 
,, reeling, 315 
„ spinning mills, 307 — 312 
,, Syrian, Brutian, Bulgarian 

and Persian, 318 
,, throwing and spinning, 

292—332 
„ wild, 329—332 
,, yarns, imperfections in, 
302—307 
Singeing, 224 
Sizers, 260 

South American wools, 24 
Spindle draft, 6 
Spinners, 260 

Spinning and jireparing a tex- 
tile material, ex- 
ample of, 138, 139 
,, methods of preparing 
vegetable fibres 
for, 129—131 
„ methods of preparing 
animal fibres for, 
131—135 
,, of long fibres, 94 — - 

112 
,, of short fibres, 112 — ■ 

126 
,, table of preparatory 
processes, 128 
Staples of wools, hairs, cottons, 

etc., 25, 42—61 
Steaming, 220 

C C 



386 



INDEX 



Stop-rod mechanism, 180 
Stuffs, 273, 282 
Sulphide dyes, 76 



Table of strengths of fibres, 

threads and fabrics, 93 
Taking-iip motion, 188 
Tapestry industry, 283—291 
structure, 285—289 
Tappet loom, 182—186, 193 
Tentering, 222 
Testing and research, 378 
Tests for mercerised cotton. 65 
Textile industries, future and 

development, 375 — 380 
Turkey red, 78 

U. 

Union cloths, 65 
United States wool, 28 



V. 



Vat dyes, 76 
Vegetable fibres 



average dia- 
meters and 
working- 
lengths, 53 
,, growing in- 
dustry of, 
48—55 
lists of, 49— 
52 
„ methods of 
prepara- 
tion, 129 
hairs, 48—55 



W. 

"Warpers and sizers, 260 
"Warp stop motion, 181 
Washing off, 221 
W^aterproofing, 226 
Water used in dyeing, 79 
W^ater frame, 8, 104 
Weaving movements, 180 — 193 
,, principles of, 170 — 
194 
Weft fork mechanism, 181 
Weights of cloths, 240 
Welfare work. 378 
Witch, 7 

Wool buyers, 260 
,, comb, genesis of, 13 
,, growing industry, 19 — 34 
,, scouring, 81 
„ table, 33, 34 
WooUen industry, 248—256 
,, machinery sets for 
coarse and fine 
work, 253 
,, machinery tables, 250, 

251 
,, method of prepara- 
tion, 132 
W^orsted branches, 260—265 
industry, 257—272 
,, method of prepara- 
tion, 133—135 
tables, 267—272 

Y. 

Yarns, counting of, 233—236 
„ resultant count, 238 — 
243 



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